Methods and apparatus for detecting molecular interactions using FET arrays

ABSTRACT

Methods and apparatuses relating to large scale FET arrays for analyte detection and measurement are provided. ChemFET (e.g., ISFET) arrays may be fabricated using conventional CMOS processing techniques based on improved FET pixel and array designs that increase measurement sensitivity and accuracy, and at the same time facilitate significantly small pixel sizes and dense arrays. Improved array control techniques provide for rapid data acquisition from large and dense arrays. Such arrays may be employed to detect a presence and/or concentration changes of various analyte types in a wide variety of chemical and/or biological processes.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. non-provisionalapplication Ser. No. 12/002,781, filed Dec. 17, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No.8,262,900, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. non-provisionalapplication Ser. No. 12/002,291, filed Dec. 14, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No.7,948,015, which claims benefit of U.S. provisional application nos.60/870,073, filed Dec. 14, 2006; 60/948,748, filed Jul. 10, 2007; and60/956,324, filed Aug. 16, 2007. This application also claims priorityto U.S. provisional application No. 61/133,204, filed Jun. 26, 2008,which are all incorporated by reference in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present disclosure is directed generally to inventive methods andapparatus relating to detection and measurement of one or more analytes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Electronic devices and components have found numerous applications inchemistry and biology (more generally, “life sciences”), especially fordetection and measurement of various chemical and biological reactionsand identification, detection and measurement of various compounds. Onesuch electronic device is referred to as an ion-sensitive field effecttransistor, often denoted in the relevant literature as ISFET (orpHFET). ISFETs conventionally have been explored, primarily in theacademic and research community, to facilitate measurement of thehydrogen ion concentration of a solution (commonly denoted as “pH”).

More specifically, an ISFET is an impedance transformation device thatoperates in a manner similar to that of a MOSFET (Metal OxideSemiconductor Field Effect Transistor), and is particularly configuredto selectively measure ion activity in a solution (e.g., hydrogen ionsin the solution are the “analytes”). A detailed theory of operation ofan ISFET is given in “Thirty years of ISFETOLOGY: what happened in thepast 30 years and what may happen in the next 30 years,” P. Bergveld,Sens. Actuators, 88 (2003), pp. 1-20, which publication is herebyincorporated herein by reference (hereinafter referred to as“Bergveld”).

FIG. 1 illustrates a cross-section of a p-type (p-channel) ISFET 50fabricated using a conventional CMOS (Complimentary Metal OxideSemiconductor) process. However, biCMOS (i.e., bipolar and CMOS)processing may also be used, such as a process that would include a PMOSFET array with bipolar structures on the periphery. Taking the CMOSexample, P-type ISFET fabrication is based on a p-type silicon substrate52, in which an n-type well 54 forming a transistor “body” is formed.Highly doped p-type (p+) regions S and D, constituting a source 56 and adrain 58 of the ISFET, are formed within the n-type well 54. A highlydoped n-type (n+) region B is also formed within the n-type well toprovide a conductive body (or “bulk”) connection 62 to the n-type well.An oxide layer 65 is disposed above the source, drain and bodyconnection regions, through which openings are made to provideelectrical connections (via electrical conductors) to these regions; forexample, metal contact 66 serves as a conductor to provide an electricalconnection to the drain 58, and metal contact 68 serves as a conductorto provide a common connection to the source 56 and n-type well 54, viathe highly conductive body connection 62. A polysilicon gate 64 isformed above the oxide layer at a location above a region 60 of then-type well 54, between the source 56 and the drain 58. Because it isdisposed between the polysilicon gate 64 and the transistor body (i.e.,the n-type well), the oxide layer 65 often is referred to as the “gateoxide.”

Like a MOSFET, the operation of an ISFET is based on the modulation ofcharge concentration caused by a MOS (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)capacitance constituted by the polysilicon gate 64, the gate oxide 65and the region 60 of the n-type well 54 between the source and thedrain. When a negative voltage is applied across the gate and sourceregions (V_(GS)<0 Volts), a “p-channel” 63 is created at the interfaceof the region 60 and the gate oxide 65 by depleting this area ofelectrons. This p-channel 63 extends between the source and the drain,and electric current is conducted through the p-channel when thegate-source potential V_(GS) is negative enough to attract holes fromthe source into the channel. The gate-source potential at which thechannel 63 begins to conduct current is referred to as the transistor'sthreshold voltage V_(TH) (the transistor conducts when V_(GS) has anabsolute value greater than the threshold voltage V_(TH)). The source isso named because it is the source of the charge carriers (holes for ap-channel) that flow through the channel 63; similarly, the drain iswhere the charge carriers leave the channel 63.

In the ISFET 50 of FIG. 1, the n-type well 54 (transistor body), via thebody connection 62, is forced to be biased at a same potential as thesource 56 (i.e., V_(SB)=0 Volts), as seen by the metal contact 68connected to both the source 56 and the body connection 62. Thisconnection prevents forward biasing of the p+ source region and then-type well, and thereby facilitates confinement of charge carriers tothe area of the region 60 in which the channel 63 may be formed. Anypotential difference between the source 56 and the body/n-type well 54(a non-zero source-to-body voltage V_(SB)) affects the threshold voltageV_(TH) of the ISFET according to a nonlinear relationship, and iscommonly referred to as the “body effect,” which in many applications isundesirable.

As also shown in FIG. 1, the polysilicon gate 64 of the ISFET 50 iscoupled to multiple metal layers disposed within one or more additionaloxide layers 75 disposed above the gate oxide 65 to form a “floatinggate” structure 70. The floating gate structure is so named because itis electrically isolated from other conductors associated with theISFET; namely, it is sandwiched between the gate oxide 65 and apassivation layer 72. In the ISFET 50, the passivation layer 72constitutes an ion-sensitive membrane that gives rise to theion-sensitivity of the device; i.e., the presence of—analytes such asions in an “analyte solution” 74 (i.e., a solution containing analytes(including ions) of interest or being tested for the presence ofanalytes of interest) in contact with the passivation layer 72,particularly in a sensitive area 78 above the floating gate structure70, alters the electrical characteristics of the ISFET so as to modulatea current flowing through the p-channel 63 between the source 56 and thedrain 58. The passivation layer 72 may comprise any one of a variety ofdifferent materials to facilitate sensitivity to particular ions; forexample, pas sivation layers comprising silicon nitride or siliconoxynitride, as well as metal oxides such as silicon, aluminum ortantalum oxides, generally provide sensitivity to hydrogen ionconcentration (pH) in the analyte solution 74, whereas passivationlayers comprising polyvinyl chloride containing valinomycin providesensitivity to potassium ion concentration in the analyte solution 74.Materials suitable for passivation layers and sensitive to other ionssuch as sodium, silver, iron, bromine, iodine, calcium, and nitrate, forexample, are known.

With respect to ion sensitivity, an electric potential difference,commonly referred to as a “surface potential,” arises at thesolid/liquid interface of the passivation layer 72 and the analytesolution 74 as a function of the ion concentration in the sensitive area78 due to a chemical reaction (e.g., usually involving the dissociationof oxide surface groups by the ions in the analyte solution 74 inproximity to the sensitive area 78). This surface potential in turnaffects the threshold voltage V_(TH) of the ISFET; thus, it is thethreshold voltage V_(TH) of the ISFET that varies with changes in ionconcentration in the analyte solution 74 in proximity to the sensitivearea 78.

FIG. 2 illustrates an electric circuit representation of the p-channelISFET 50 shown in FIG. 1. With reference again to FIG. 1, a referenceelectrode 76 (a conventional Ag/AgCl electrode) in the analyte solution74 determines the electric potential of the bulk of the analyte solution74 itself and is analogous to the gate terminal of a conventionalMOSFET, as shown in FIG. 2. In a linear or non-saturated operatingregion of the ISFET, the drain current I_(D) is given as:

$\begin{matrix}{{I_{D} = {{\beta\left( {V_{GS} - V_{TH} - {\frac{1}{2}V_{DS}}} \right)}V_{DS}}},} & (1)\end{matrix}$where V_(HS) is the voltage between the drain and the source, and β is atransconductance parameter (in units of Amps/Volts²) given by:

$\begin{matrix}{{\beta = {\mu\;{C_{ox}\left( \frac{W}{L} \right)}}},} & (2)\end{matrix}$where μ represents the carrier mobility, C_(ox) is the gate oxidecapacitance per unit area, and the ratio W/L is the width to lengthratio of the channel 63. If the reference electrode 76 provides anelectrical reference or ground (V_(G)=0 Volts), and the drain currentI_(D) and the drain-to-source voltage V_(DS) are kept constant,variations of the source voltage V_(S) of the ISFET directly trackvariations of the threshold voltage V_(TH), according to Eq. (1); thismay be observed by rearranging Eq. (1) as:

$\begin{matrix}{V_{S} = {{- V_{TH}} - {\left( {\frac{I_{D}}{\beta\; V_{DS}} + \frac{V_{DS}}{2}} \right).}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

Since the threshold voltage V_(TH) of the ISFET is sensitive to ionconcentration as discussed above, according to Eq. (3) the sourcevoltage V_(S) provides a signal that is directly related to the ionconcentration in the analyte solution 74 in proximity to the sensitivearea 78 of the ISFET. More specifically, the threshold voltage V_(TH) isgiven by:

$\begin{matrix}{{V_{TH} = {V_{FB} - \frac{Q_{B}}{C_{ox}} + {2\phi_{F}}}},} & (4)\end{matrix}$where V_(FB) is the flatband voltage, Q_(B) is the depletion charge inthe silicon and φ_(F) is the Fermi-potential. The flatband voltage inturn is related to material properties such as workfunctions and chargeaccumulation. In the case of an ISFET, with reference to FIGS. 1 and 2,the flatband voltage contains terms that reflect interfaces between 1)the reference electrode 76 (acting as the transistor gate G) and theanalyte solution 74; and 2) the analyte solution 74 and the passivationlayer 72 in the sensitive area 78 (which in turn mimics the interfacebetween the polysilicon gate 64 of the floating gate structure 70 andthe gate oxide 65). The flatband voltage V_(FB) is thus given by:

$\begin{matrix}{{V_{FB} = {E_{ref} - \Psi_{0} + \chi_{sol} - \frac{\Phi_{Si}}{q} - \frac{Q_{ss} + Q_{ox}}{C_{ox}}}},} & (5)\end{matrix}$where E_(ref) is the reference electrode potential relative to vacuum,Ψ₀ is the surface potential that results from chemical reactions at theanalyte solution/passivation layer interface (e.g., dissociation ofsurface groups in the passivation layer), and χ_(sol) is the surfacedipole potential of the analyte solution 74. The fourth term in Eq. (5)relates to the silicon workfunction (q is the electron charge), and thelast term relates to charge densities at the silicon surface and in thegate oxide. The only term in Eq. (5) sensitive to ion concentration inthe analyte solution 74 is Ψ₀, as the ion concentration in the analytesolution 74 controls the chemical reactions (dissociation of surfacegroups) at the analyte solution/passivation layer interface. Thus,substituting Eq. (5) into Eq. (4), it may be readily observed that it isthe surface potential Ψ₀ that renders the threshold voltage V_(TH)sensitive to ion concentration in the analyte solution 74.

Regarding the chemical reactions at the analyte solution/passivationlayer interface, the surface of a given material employed for thepassivation layer 72 may include chemical groups that may donate protonsto or accept protons from the analyte solution 74, leaving at any giventime negatively charged, positively charged, and neutral sites on thesurface of the passivation layer 72 at the interface with the analytesolution 74. A model for this proton donation/acceptance process at theanalyte solution/passivation layer interface is referred to in therelevant literature as the “Site-Dissociation Model” or the“Site-Binding Model,” and the concepts underlying such a process may beapplied generally to characterize surface activity of passivation layerscomprising various materials (e.g., metal oxides, metal nitrides, metaloxynitrides).

Using the example of a metal oxide for purposes of illustration, thesurface of any metal oxide contains hydroxyl groups that may donate aproton to or accept a proton from the analyte to leave negatively orpositively charged sites, respectively, on the surface. The equilibriumreactions at these sites may be described by:AOH

AO⁻+H_(s) ⁺  (6)AOH₂ ⁺

AOH+H_(s) ⁺  (7)where A denotes an exemplary metal, H_(s) ⁺ represents a proton in theanalyte solution 74, Eq. (6) describes proton donation by a surfacegroup, and Eq. (7) describes proton acceptance by a surface group. Itshould be appreciated that the reactions given in Eqs. (6) and (7) alsoare present and need to be considered in the analysis of a passivationlayer comprising metal nitrides, together with the equilibrium reaction:ANH₃ ⁺

ANH₂+H⁺,  (7b)wherein Eq. (7b) describes another proton acceptance equilibriumreaction. For purposes of the present discussion however, again only theproton donation and acceptance reactions given in Eqs. (6) and (7) areinitially considered to illustrate the relevant concepts.

Based on the respective forward and backward reaction rate constants foreach equilibrium reaction, intrinsic dissociation constants K_(a) (forthe reaction of Eq. (6)) and K_(b) (for the reaction of Eq. (7)) may becalculated that describe the equilibrium reactions. These intrinsicdissociation constants in turn may be used to determine a surface chargedensity σ₀ (in units of Coulombs/unit area) of the passivation layer 72according to:σ₀ =−qB,  (8)where the term B denotes the number of negatively charged surface groupsminus the number of positively charged surface groups per unit area,which in turn depends on the total number of proton donor/acceptor sitesper unit area N_(S) on the passivation layer surface, multiplied by afactor relating to the intrinsic dissociation constants K_(a) and K_(b)of the respective proton donation and acceptance equilibrium reactionsand the surface proton activity (or pH_(S)). The effect of a smallchange in surface proton activity (pH_(S)) on the surface charge densityis given by:

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{\partial\sigma_{0}}{{\partial p}\; H_{S}} = {{{- q}\frac{\partial B}{{\partial p}\; H_{S}}} = {{- q}\;\beta_{int}}}},} & (9)\end{matrix}$where β_(int) is referred to as the “intrinsic buffering capacity” ofthe surface. It should be appreciated that since the values of N_(S),K_(a) and K_(b) are material dependent, the intrinsic buffering capacityβ_(int) of the surface similarly is material dependent.

The fact that ionic species in the analyte solution 74 have a finitesize and cannot approach the passivation layer surface any closer thanthe ionic radius results in a phenomenon referred to as a “double layercapacitance” proximate to the analyte solution/passivation layerinterface. In the Gouy-Chapman-Stern model for the double layercapacitance as described in Bergveld, the surface charge density σ₀ isbalanced by an equal but opposite charge density in the analyte solution74 at some position from the surface of the passivation layer 72. Thesetwo parallel opposite charges form a so-called “double layercapacitance” C_(dl) (per unit area), and the potential difference acrossthe capacitance C_(dl) is defined as the surface potential Ψ₀, accordingto:σ₀ =C _(dl)Ψ₀=−σ_(dl)  (10)where σ_(dl) is the charge density on the analyte solution side of thedouble layer capacitance. This charge density σ_(dl) in turn is afunction of the concentration of all ion species or other analytespecies (i.e., not just protons) in the bulk analyte solution 74; inparticular, the surface charge density can be balanced not only byhydrogen ions but other ion species (e.g., Na⁺, K⁺) in the bulk analytesolution.

In the regime of relatively lower ionic strengths (e.g., <1 mole/liter),the Debye theory may be used to describe the double layer capacitanceC_(dl) according to:

$\begin{matrix}{C_{dl} = \frac{k\; ɛ_{0}}{\lambda}} & (11)\end{matrix}$where k is the dielectric constant ∈/∈₀ (for relatively lower ionicstrengths, the dielectric constant of water may be used), and λ is theDebye screening length (i.e., the distance over which significant chargeseparation can occur). The Debye length λ is in turn inverselyproportional to the square root of the strength of the ionic species inthe analyte solution, and in water at room temperature is given by:

$\begin{matrix}{\lambda = {\frac{0.3\mspace{14mu}{nm}}{\sqrt{I}}.}} & (12)\end{matrix}$The ionic strength I of the bulk analyte is a function of theconcentration of all ionic species present, and is given by:

$\begin{matrix}{{I = {\frac{1}{2}{\sum\limits_{s}{z_{s}^{2}c_{s}}}}},} & (13)\end{matrix}$where z_(s) is the charge number of ionic species s and c_(s) is themolar concentration of ionic species s. Accordingly, from Eqs. (10)through (13), it may be observed that the surface potential is largerfor larger Debye screening lengths (i.e., smaller ionic strengths).

The relation between pH values present at the analytesolution/passivation layer interface and in the bulk solution isexpressed in the relevant literature by Boltzman statistics with thesurface potential Ψ₀ as a parameter:

$\begin{matrix}{\left( {{pH}_{s} - {pH}_{B}} \right) = {\frac{q\;\Psi_{0}}{k\; T}.}} & (14)\end{matrix}$From Eqs. (9), (10) and (14), the sensitivity of the surface potentialΨ₀ particularly to changes in the bulk pH of the analyte solution (i.e.,“pH sensitivity”) is given by:

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{\Delta\;\Psi_{0}}{\Delta\; p\; H} = {{- 2.3}\frac{k\; T}{q}\alpha}},} & (15)\end{matrix}$where the parameter α is a dimensionless sensitivity factor that variesbetween zero and one and depends on the double layer capacitance C_(dl)and the intrinsic buffering capacity of the surface β_(int) as discussedabove in connection with Eq. (9). In general, passivation layermaterials with a high intrinsic buffering capacity β_(int) render thesurface potential Ψ₀ less sensitive to concentration in the analytesolution 74 of ionic species other than protons (e.g., a is maximized bya large β_(int)). From Eq. (15), at a temperature T of 298 degreesKelvin, it may be appreciated that a theoretical maximum pH sensitivityof 59.2 mV/pH may be achieved at α=1. From Eqs. (4) and (5), as notedabove, changes in the ISFET threshold voltage V_(TH) directly trackchanges in the surface potential Ψ₀; accordingly, the pH sensitivity ofan ISFET given by Eq. (15) also may be denoted and referred to herein asΔV_(TH) for convenience. In exemplary conventional ISFETs employing asilicon nitride or silicon oxynitride passivation layer 72 forpH-sensitivity, pH sensitivities ΔV_(TH) (i.e., a change in thresholdvoltage with change in pH of the analyte solution 74) over a range ofapproximately 30 mV/pH to 60 mV/pH have been observed experimentally.

Another noteworthy metric in connection with ISFET pH sensitivityrelates to the bulk pH of the analyte solution 74 at which there is nonet surface charge density σ₀ and, accordingly, a surface potential Ψ₀of zero volts. This pH is referred to as the “point of zero charge” anddenoted as pH_(pzc). With reference again to Eqs. (8) and (9), like theintrinsic buffering capacity β_(int), pH_(pzc) is a material dependentparameter. From the foregoing, it may be appreciated that the surfacepotential at any given bulk pH_(B) of the analyte solution 74 may becalculated according to:

$\begin{matrix}{{\Psi_{0}\left( {p\; H_{B}} \right)} = {\left( {{p\; H_{B}} - {p\; H_{pzc}}} \right){\frac{{\Delta\Psi}_{0}}{\Delta\; p\; H}.}}} & (16)\end{matrix}$Table 1 below lists various metal oxides and metal nitrides and theircorresponding points of zero charge (pH_(pzc)), pH sensitivities(ΔV_(TH)), and theoretical maximum surface potential at a pH of 9:

TABLE 1 Oxide/ Theoretical Ψ₀ Metal Nitride pH_(pzc) ΔV_(TH) (mV/pH)(mV) @ pH = 9 Al Al₂O₃ 9.2  54.5 (35° C.) −11 Zr ZrO₂ 5.1 50 150 Ti TiO₂5.5 57.4-62.3 201 (32° C., pH 3-11) Ta Ta₂O₅ 2.9, 2.8 62.87 (35° C.) 384Si Si₃N₄ 4.6, 6-7 56.94 (25° C.) 251 Si SiO₂ 2.1 43 297 Mo MoO₃ 1.8-2.148-59 396 W WO₂ 0.3, 0.43, 0.5 50 435

Prior research efforts to fabricate ISFETs for pH measurements based onconventional CMOS processing techniques typically have aimed to achievehigh signal linearity over a pH range from 1-14. Using an exemplarythreshold sensitivity of approximately 50 mV/pH, and considering Eq. (3)above, this requires a linear operating range of approximately 700 mVfor the source voltage V_(S). As discussed above in connection with FIG.1, the threshold voltage V_(TH) of ISFETs (as well as MOSFETs) isaffected by any voltage V_(SB) between the source and the body (n-typewell 54). More specifically, the threshold voltage V_(TH) is a nonlinearfunction of a nonzero source-to-body voltage V_(SB). Accordingly, so asto avoid compromising linearity due to a difference between the sourceand body voltage potentials (i.e., to mitigate the “body effect”), asshown in FIG. 1 the source 56 and body connection 62 of the ISFET 50often are coupled to a common potential via the metal contact 68. Thisbody-source coupling also is shown in the electric circuitrepresentation of the ISFET 50 shown in FIG. 2.

While the foregoing discussion relates primarily to a steady stateanalysis of ISFET response based on the equilibrium reactions given inEqs. (6) and (7), the transient or dynamic response of a conventionalISFET to an essentially instantaneous change in ionic strength of theanalyte solution 74 (e.g., a stepwise change in proton or other ionicspecies concentration) has been explored in some research efforts. Oneexemplary treatment of ISFET transient or dynamic response is found in“ISFET responses on a stepwise change in electrolyte concentration atconstant pH,” J. C. van Kerkof, J. C. T. Eijkel and P. Bergveld, Sensorsand Actuators B, 18-19 (1994), pp. 56-59, which is incorporated hereinby reference.

For ISFET transient response, a stepwise change in the concentration ofone or more ionic species in the analyte solution in turn essentiallyinstantaneously changes the charge density σ_(dl) on the analytesolution side of the double layer capacitance C_(dl). Because theinstantaneous change in charge density σ_(dl) is faster than thereaction kinetics at the surface of the passivation layer 72, thesurface charge density σ₀ initially remains constant, and the change inion concentration effectively results in a sudden change in the doublelayer capacitance C_(dl). From Eq. (10), it may be appreciated that sucha sudden change in the capacitance C_(dl) at a constant surface chargedensity σ₀ results in a corresponding sudden change in the surfacepotential Ψ₀. FIG. 2A illustrates this phenomenon, in which anessentially instantaneous or stepwise increase in ion concentration inthe analyte solution, as shown in the top graph, results in acorresponding change in the surface potential Ψ₀, as shown in the bottomgraph of FIG. 2A. After some time, as the passivation layer surfacegroups react to the stimulus (i.e., as the surface charge densityadjusts), the system returns to some equilibrium point, as illustratedby the decay of the ISFET response “pulse” 79 shown in the bottom graphof FIG. 2A. The foregoing phenomenon is referred to in the relevantliterature (and hereafter in this disclosure) as an “ion-step” response.

As indicated in the bottom graph of FIG. 2A, an amplitude ΔΨ₀ of theion-step response 79 may be characterized by:

$\begin{matrix}{{{\Delta\Psi}_{0} = {{\Psi_{1} - \Psi_{2}} = {{\frac{\sigma_{0}}{C_{{dl},1}} - \frac{\sigma_{0}}{C_{{dl},\; 2}}} = {\Psi_{1}\left( {1 - \frac{C_{{dl},1}}{C_{{dl},2}}} \right)}}}},} & (17)\end{matrix}$where Ψ₁ is an equilibrium surface potential at an initial ionconcentration in the analyte solution, C_(dl,1) is the double layercapacitance per unit area at the initial ion concentration, Ψ₂ is thesurface potential corresponding to the ion-step stimulus, and C_(dl,2)is the double layer capacitance per unit area based on the ion-stepstimulus. The time decay profile 81 associated with the response 79 isdetermined at least in part by the kinetics of the equilibrium reactionsat the analyte solution/passivation layer interface (e.g., as given byEqs. (6) and (7) for metal oxides, and also Eq. (7b) for metalnitrides). One instructive treatment in this regard is provided by“Modeling the short-time response of ISFET sensors,” P. Woias et al.,Sensors and Actuators B, 24-25 (1995) 211-217 (hereinafter referred toas “Woias”), which publication is incorporated herein by reference.

In the Woias publication, an exemplary ISFET having a silicon nitridepassivation layer is considered. A system of coupled non-lineardifferential equations based on the equilibrium reactions given by Eqs.(6), (7), and (7a) is formulated to describe the dynamic response of theISFET to a step (essentially instantaneous) change in pH; morespecifically, these equations describe the change in concentration overtime of the various surface species involved in the equilibriumreactions, based on the forward and backward rate constants for theinvolved proton acceptance and proton donation reactions and how changesin analyte pH affect one or more of the reaction rate constants.Exemplary solutions, some of which include multiple exponentialfunctions and associated time constants, are provided for theconcentration of each of the surface ion species as a function of time.In one example provided by Woias, it is assumed that the proton donationreaction given by Eq. (6) dominates the transient response of thesilicon nitride passivation layer surface for relatively small stepchanges in pH, thereby facilitating a mono-exponential approximation forthe time decay profile 81 of the response 79 according to:Ψ₀(t)=ΔΨ₀ e ^(−t/τ),  (18)where the exponential function essentially represents the change insurface charge density as a function of time. In Eq. (16), the timeconstant τ is both a function of the bulk pH and material parameters ofthe passivation layer, according to:τ=τ₀×10^(pH/2),  (19)where τ₀ denotes a theoretical minimum response time that only dependson material parameters. For silicon nitride, Woias provides exemplaryvalues for τ₀ on the order of 60 microseconds to 200 microseconds. Forpurposes of providing an illustrative example, using τ₀=60 microsecondsand a bulk pH of 9, the time constant τ given by Eq. (19) is 1.9seconds. Exemplary values for other types of passivation materials maybe found in the relevant literature and/or determined empirically.

Previous efforts to fabricate two-dimensional arrays of ISFETs based onthe ISFET design of FIG. 1 have resulted in a maximum of 256 ISFETsensor elements (or “pixels”) in an array (i.e., a 16 pixel by 16 pixelarray). Exemplary research in ISFET array fabrication is reported in thepublications “A large transistor-based sensor array chip for directextracellular imaging,” M. J. Milgrew, M. O. Riehle, and D. R. S.Cumming, Sensors and Actuators, B: Chemical, 111-112, (2005), pp.347-353, and “The development of scalable sensor arrays using standardCMOS technology,” M. J. Milgrew, P. A. Hammond, and D. R. S. Cumming,Sensors and Actuators, B: Chemical, 103, (2004), pp. 37-42, whichpublications are incorporated herein by reference and collectivelyreferred to hereafter as “Milgrew et al.” Other research effortsrelating to the realization of ISFET arrays are reported in thepublications “A very large integrated pH-ISFET sensor array chipcompatible with standard CMOS processes,” T. C. W. Yeow, M. R. Haskard,D. E. Mulcahy, H. I. Seo and D. H. Kwon, Sensors and Actuators B:Chemical, 44, (1997), pp. 434-440 and “Fabrication of a two-dimensionalpH image sensor using a charge transfer technique,” Hizawa, T., Sawada,K., Takao, H., Ishida, M., Sensors and Actuators, B: Chemical 117 (2),2006, pp. 509-515, which publications also are incorporated herein byreference.

FIG. 3 illustrates one column 85 _(j) of a two-dimensional ISFET arrayaccording to the design of Milgrew et al. The column 85 _(j) includessixteen (16) pixels 80 ₁ through 80 ₁₆ and, as discussed further belowin connection with FIG. 7, a complete two-dimensional array includessixteen (16) such columns 85 _(j) (j=1, 2, 3, . . . 16) arranged side byside. As shown in FIG. 3, a given column 85 _(j) includes a currentsource I_(SOURCEj) that is shared by all pixels of the column, and ISFETbias/readout circuitry 82 _(j) (including current sink I_(SINKj)) thatis also shared by all pixels of the column. Each ISFET pixel 80 ₁through 80 ₁₆ includes a p-channel ISFET 50 having an electricallycoupled source and body (as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2), plus two switchesS1 and S2 that are responsive to one of sixteen row select signals(RSEL₁ through RSEL₁₆, and their complements). As discussed below inconnection with FIG. 7, a row select signal and its complement aregenerated simultaneously to “enable” or select a given pixel of thecolumn 85 _(j), and such signal pairs are generated in some sequence tosuccessively enable different pixels of the column one at a time.

As shown in FIG. 3, the switch S2 of each pixel 80 in the design ofMilgrew et al. is implemented as a conventional n-channel MOSFET thatcouples the current source I_(SOURCEj) to the source of the ISFET 50upon receipt of the corresponding row select signal. The switch S1 ofeach pixel 80 is implemented as a transmission gate, i.e., a CMOS pairincluding an n-channel MOSFET and a p-channel MOSFET, that couples thesource of the ISFET 50 to the bias/readout circuitry 82 _(j) uponreceipt of the corresponding row select signal and its complement. Anexample of the switch S1 ₁ of the pixel 80 ₁ is shown in FIG. 4, inwhich the p-channel MOSFET of the transmission gate is indicated as S1_(1P) and the n-channel MOSFET is indicated as S1 _(1N). In the designof Milgrew et al., a transmission gate is employed for the switch S1 ofeach pixel so that, for an enabled pixel, any ISFET source voltagewithin the power supply range V_(DD) to V_(SS) may be applied to thebias/readout circuitry 82 _(j) and output by the column as the signalV_(Sj). From the foregoing, it should be appreciated that each pixel 80in the ISFET sensor array design of Milgrew et al. includes fourtransistors, i.e., a p-channel ISFET, a CMOS-pair transmission gateincluding an n-channel MOSFET and a p-channel MOSFET for switch S1, andan n-channel MOSFET for switch S2.

As also shown in FIG. 3, the bias/readout circuitry 82 _(j) employs asource-drain follower configuration in the form of a Kelvin bridge tomaintain a constant drain-source voltage V_(DSj) and isolate themeasurement of the source voltage V_(Sj) from the constant drain currentI_(SOURCEj) for the ISFET of an enabled pixel in the column 85 _(j). Tothis end, the bias/readout circuitry 82 _(j) includes two operationalamplifiers A1 and A2, a current sink I_(SINKj), and a resistor R_(SDj).The voltage developed across the resistor R_(SDj) due to the currentI_(SINKj) flowing through the resistor is forced by the operationalamplifiers to appear across the drain and source of the ISFET of anenabled pixel as a constant drain-source voltage V_(DSj). Thus, withreference again to Eq. (3), due to the constant V_(DSj) and the constantI_(SOURCEj), the source voltage V_(Sj) of the ISFET of the enabled pixelprovides a signal corresponding to the ISFETs threshold voltage V_(TH),and hence a measurement of pH in proximity to the ISFETs sensitive area(see FIG. 1). The wide dynamic range for the source voltage V_(Sj)provided by the transmission gate S1 ensures that a full range of pHvalues from 1-14 may be measured, and the source-body connection of eachISFET ensures sufficient linearity of the ISFETs threshold voltage overthe full pH measurement range.

In the column design of Milgrew et al. shown in FIG. 3, it should beappreciated that for the Kelvin bridge configuration of the columnbias/readout circuitry 82 _(j) to function properly, a p-channel ISFET50 as shown in FIG. 1 must be employed in each pixel; more specifically,an alternative implementation based on the Kelvin bridge configurationis not possible using an n-channel ISFET. With reference again to FIG.1, for an n-channel ISFET based on a conventional CMOS process, then-type well 54 would not be required, and highly doped n-type regionsfor the drain and source would be formed directly in the p-type siliconsubstrate 52 (which would constitute the transistor body). For n-channelFET devices, the transistor body typically is coupled to electricalground. Given the requirement that the source and body of an ISFET inthe design of Milgrew et al. are electrically coupled together tomitigate nonlinear performance due to the body effect, this would resultin the source of an n-channel ISFET also being connected to electricalground (i.e., V_(S)=V_(B)=0 Volts), thereby precluding any useful outputsignal from an enabled pixel. Accordingly, the column design of Milgrewet al. shown in FIG. 3 requires p-channel ISFETs for proper operation.

It should also be appreciated that in the column design of Milgrew etal. shown in FIG. 3, the two n-channel MOSFETs required to implement theswitches S1 and S2 in each pixel cannot be formed in the n-type well 54shown in FIG. 1, in which the p-channel ISFET for the pixel is formed;rather, the n-channel MOSFETs are formed directly in the p-type siliconsubstrate 52, beyond the confines of the n-type well 54 for the ISFET.FIG. 5 is a diagram similar to FIG. 1, illustrating a widercross-section of a portion of the p-type silicon substrate 52corresponding to one pixel 80 of the column 85 j shown in FIG. 3, inwhich the n-type well 54 containing the drain 58, source 56 and bodyconnection 62 of the ISFET 50 is shown alongside a first n-channelMOSFET corresponding to the switch S2 and a second n-channel MOSFET S1_(1N) constituting one of the two transistors of the transmission gateS1 ₁ shown in FIG. 4.

Furthermore, in the design of Milgrew et al., the p-channel MOSFETrequired to implement the transmission gate S1 in each pixel (e.g., seeS1 _(1P) in FIG. 4) cannot be formed in the same n-type well in whichthe p-channel ISFET 50 for the pixel is formed. In particular, becausethe body and source of the p-channel ISFET are electrically coupledtogether, implementing the p-channel MOSFET S1 _(1P) in the same n-wellas the p-channel ISFET 50 would lead to unpredictable operation of thetransmission gate, or preclude operation entirely. Accordingly, twoseparate n-type wells are required to implement each pixel in the designof Milgrew et al. FIG. 6 is a diagram similar to FIG. 5, showing across-section of another portion of the p-type silicon substrate 52corresponding to one pixel 80, in which the n-type well 54 correspondingto the ISFET 50 is shown alongside a second n-type well 55 in which isformed the p-channel MOSFET S1 _(1P) constituting one of the twotransistors of the transmission gate S1 ₁ shown in FIG. 4. It should beappreciated that the drawings in FIGS. 5 and 6 are not to scale and maynot exactly represent the actual layout of a particular pixel in thedesign of Milgrew et al.; rather these figures are conceptual in natureand are provided primarily to illustrate the requirements of multiplen-wells, and separate n-channel MOSFETs fabricated outside of then-wells, in the design of Milgrew et al.

The array design of Milgrew et al. was implemented using a 0.35micrometer (μm) conventional CMOS fabrication process. In this process,various design rules dictate minimum separation distances betweenfeatures. For example, according to the 0.35 μm CMOS design rules, withreference to FIG. 6, a distance “a” between neighboring n-wells must beat least three (3) micrometers. A distance “a/2” also is indicated inFIG. 6 to the left of the n-well 54 and to the right of the n-well 55 toindicate the minimum distance required to separate the pixel 80 shown inFIG. 6 from neighboring pixels in other columns to the left and right,respectively. Additionally, according to typical 0.35 μm CMOS designrules, a distance “b” shown in FIG. 6 representing the width incross-section of the n-type well 54 and a distance “c” representing thewidth in cross-section of the n-type well 55 are each on the order ofapproximately 3 μm to 4 μm (within the n-type well, an allowance of 1.2μm is made between the edge of the n-well and each of the source anddrain, and the source and drain themselves have a width on the order of0.7 μm). Accordingly, a total distance “d” shown in FIG. 6 representingthe width of the pixel 80 in cross-section is on the order ofapproximately 12 μm to 14 μm. In one implementation, Milgrew et al.report an array based on the column/pixel design shown in FIG. 3comprising geometrically square pixels each having a dimension of 12.8μm by 12.8 μm.

In sum, the ISFET pixel design of Milgrew et al. is aimed at ensuringaccurate hydrogen ion concentration measurements over a pH range of1-14. To ensure measurement linearity, the source and body of eachpixel's ISFET are electrically coupled together. To ensure a full rangeof pH measurements, a transmission gate S1 is employed in each pixel totransmit the source voltage of an enabled pixel. Thus, each pixel ofMilgrew's array requires four transistors (p-channel ISFET, p-channelMOSFET, and two n-channel MOSFETs) and two separate n-wells (FIG. 6).Based on a 0.35 micrometer conventional CMOS fabrication process andcorresponding design rules, the pixels of such an array have a minimumsize appreciably greater than 10 μm, i.e., on the order of approximately12 μm to 14 μm.

FIG. 7 illustrates a complete two-dimensional pixel array 95 accordingto the design of Milgrew et al., together with accompanying row andcolumn decoder circuitry and measurement readout circuitry. The array 95includes sixteen columns 85 ₁ through 85 ₁₆ of pixels, each columnhaving sixteen pixels as discussed above in connection with FIG. 3(i.e., a 16 pixel by 16 pixel array). A row decoder 92 provides sixteenpairs of complementary row select signals, wherein each pair of rowselect signals simultaneously enables one pixel in each column 85 ₁through 85 ₁₆ to provide a set of column output signals from the array95 based on the respective source voltages V_(S1) through V_(S16) of theenabled row of ISFETs. The row decoder 92 is implemented as aconventional four-to-sixteen decoder (i.e., a four-bit binary inputROW₁-ROW₄ to select one of 2⁴ outputs). The set of column output signalsV_(S1) through V_(S16) for an enabled row of the array is applied toswitching logic 96, which includes sixteen transmission gates S1 throughS16 (one transmission gate for each output signal). As above, eachtransmission gate of the switching logic 96 is implemented using ap-channel MOSFET and an n-channel MOSFET to ensure a sufficient dynamicrange for each of the output signals V_(S1) through V_(S16). The columndecoder 94, like the row decoder 92, is implemented as a conventionalfour-to-sixteen decoder and is controlled via the four-bit binary inputCOL₁-COL₄ to enable one of the transmission gates S1 through S16 of theswitching logic 96 at any given time, so as to provide a single outputsignal V_(S) from the switching logic 96. This output signal V_(S) isapplied to a 10-bit analog to digital converter (ADC) 98 to provide adigital representation D₁-D₁₀ of the output signal V_(S) correspondingto a given pixel of the array.

As noted earlier, individual ISFETs and arrays of ISFETs similar tothose discussed above have been employed as sensing devices in a varietyof chemical and biological applications. In particular, ISFETs have beenemployed as pH sensors in the monitoring of various processes involvingnucleic acids such as DNA. Some examples of employing ISFETs in variouslife-science related applications are given in the followingpublications, each of which is incorporated herein by reference: MassimoBarbaro, Annalisa Bonfiglio, Luigi Raffo, Andrea Alessandrini, PaoloFacci and Imrich Barák, “Fully electronic DNA hybridization detection bya standard CMOS biochip,” Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, Volume 118,Issues 1-2, 2006, pp. 41-46; Toshinari Sakurai and Yuzuru Husimi,“Real-time monitoring of DNA polymerase reactions by a micro ISFET pHsensor,” Anal. Chem., 64(17), 1992, pp 1996-1997; S. Purushothaman, C.Toumazou, J. Georgiou, “Towards fast solid state DNA sequencing,”Circuits and Systems, vol. 4, 2002, pp. IV-169 to IV-172; S.Purushothaman, C. Toumazou, C. P. Ou, “Protons and single nucleotidepolymorphism detection: A simple use for the Ion Sensitive Field EffectTransistor,” Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, Vol. 114, no. 2, 2006,pp. 964-968; A. L. Simonian, A. W. Flounders, J. R. Wild, “FET-BasedBiosensors for The Direct Detection of Organophosphate Neurotoxins,”Electroanalysis, Vol. 16, No. 22, 2004, pp. 1896-1906; C. Toumazou, S.Purushothaman, “Sensing Apparatus and Method,” United States PatentApplication 2004-0134798, published Jul. 15, 2004; and T. W. Koo, S.Chan, X. Su, Z. Jingwu, M. Yamakawa, V. M. Dubin, “Sensor Arrays andNucleic Acid Sequencing Applications,” United States Patent Application2006-0199193, published Sep. 7, 2006.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates in part to the use of chemically-sensitive FETs(i.e., chemFETs), more particularly chemFET arrays, and even moreparticularly large chemFET arrays (e.g., those comprising 256 FETs orsensors) for monitoring biological and/or chemical processes orreactions, including without limitation molecular interactions for thepurpose of detecting analytes in a sample. These sensors may be used todetect and measure static and/or dynamic levels or concentrations of avariety of analytes (e.g., hydrogen or other ions, non-ionic moleculesor compounds, nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides, small chemicalcompounds such as chemical combinatorial library members, and the like).Analytes may be naturally occurring or non-naturally occurring, whethersynthesized in vivo or in vitro. Analytes may be used as markers of areaction or interaction, or progression thereof.

Reactions, processes or interactions that may be monitored according tothe invention include without limitation those occurring in cell ortissue cultures, those occurring between molecular entities such asreceptor-ligand interactions, antibody-antigen interactions, nucleicacid-nucleic acid interactions, neural cell stimulation and/ortriggering, interactions of cells or tissues with agents such aspharmaceutical candidate agents, and the like.

Samples may also be monitored according to the invention for thepresence of analytes. Such samples may be naturally occurring ornon-naturally occurring, including without limitation bodily samples tobe analyzed for diagnostic, prognostic and/or therapeutic purposes,chemical or biological libraries to be screened for the presence ofagents with particular structural or functional attributes, etc. Samplesare typically liquid (or are dissolved in a liquid) and of small volume,and therefore are amenable to high-speed, high-density analysis such asanalyte detection.

Accordingly, various embodiments of the present disclosure are directedgenerally to inventive methods and apparatuses that employ chemFETs andchemFET arrays, including large chemFET arrays (e.g., those thatcomprise 256 FETs or sensors, as the terms are used interchangeablyherein) for measuring one or more analytes. FET arrays by definitioninclude at least two FETs. An ISFET, as discussed above, is a particulartype of chemFET that is configured for ion detection. It is to beunderstood that ISFETs may be employed in various embodiments disclosedherein. Other types of chemFETs contemplated by the present disclosureinclude enzyme FETs (EnFETs) which employ enzymes to detect analytes. Itshould be appreciated, however, that the present disclosure is notlimited to ISFETs and EnFETs, but more generally relates to any FET thatis configured to detect one or more analytes or one or moreinteractions. Typically, in these arrays, one or more chemFET-containingelements or “pixels” constituting the sensors are configured to monitorone or more independent biological or chemical reactions or eventsoccurring in proximity to the pixels of the array.

In some exemplary implementations, individual chemFETs or chemFET arraysmay be coupled to one or more microfluidics structures that form one ormore reaction chambers, or “wells” or “microwells,” over individualsensors or groups of sensors (in the case of an array), and optionallyto an apparatus that delivers samples to the reaction chambers andremoves them from the reaction chambers between measurements. Even whenreaction chambers are not employed (and therefore the volume above thesensors is continuous), the sensor array may be coupled to one or moremicrofluidics structures for the delivery of samples or agents to thepixels and for removal of samples, agents and/or analytes betweenmeasurements. Accordingly, inventive aspects of this disclosure, whichare desired to be protected, include the various microfluidic structureswhich may be employed to flow samples and where appropriate other agentsuseful in for example the detection and measurement of analytes to andfrom the wells or pixels, methods and structures for coupling thearrayed wells with arrayed pixels, and the like.

Thus, in various aspects, the invention provides an apparatus comprisinga chemFET array having disposed on its surface a biological array or achemical array. The biological array may be a nucleic acid array, aprotein array including but not limited to an enzyme array, an antibodyarray and an antibody fragment array, a cell array, and the like. Thechemical array may be an organic molecule array, or an inorganicmolecule array, and the like. The biological array or chemical array maybe arranged into a plurality of “cells” or spatially defined regions,and each of these regions is situated over a different sensor in thechemFET array, in some embodiments.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting anucleic acid comprising contacting a nucleic acid array disposed on achemFET array with a sample, and detecting binding of a nucleic acidfrom the sample to one or more regions on the nucleic acid array.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting aprotein comprising contacting a protein array disposed on a chemFETarray with a sample, and detecting binding of a protein from the sampleto one or more regions on the protein array.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting anucleic acid comprising contacting a protein array disposed on a chemFETarray with a sample, and detecting binding of a nucleic acid from thesample to one or more regions on the protein array.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting anantigen comprising contacting an antibody array disposed on a chemFETarray with a sample, and detecting binding of an antigen from the sampleto one or more regions on the antibody array.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting anenzyme substrate or inhibitor comprising contacting an enzyme arraydisposed on a chemFET array with a sample, and detecting binding of anentity from the sample to one or more regions on the enzyme array.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting ananalyte in a sample comprising contacting a sample to a plurality ofbiological or chemical agents attached to a chemFET array, and analyzingelectrical output from a plurality of chemFET sensors in the chemFETarray after contact with the sample, wherein electrical output from achemFET sensor after contact with the sample indicates binding of ananalyte to the biological or chemical agent attached to the array.

As noted above, the sample may be from a naturally occurring source(e.g., a subject) and optionally it may be a bodily fluid. It maycomprise cells, nucleic acids, proteins (including glycoproteins,antibodies, etc.), polysaccharides, and the like.

In various embodiments, the plurality of biological or chemical agentsis a plurality of proteins, or a plurality of nucleic acids, or it maybe a mixture of proteins and nucleic acids. The biological or chemicalagents may be non-naturally occurring or naturally-occurring, and ifnaturally-occurring may be synthesized in vivo or in vitro. Theplurality of biological or chemical agents may be a homogenous pluralityof biological or chemical agents. In other embodiments, the plurality ofbiological or chemical agents is not homogeneous.

In one embodiment, the analyte is present in the sample. In anotherembodiment, the analyte is generated following contact of the samplewith the chemFET array or with other reagents in the solution in contactwith the chemFET array.

In still other embodiments, each chemFET sensor in the chemFET array iscoupled to a reaction chamber.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for monitoring abiological or chemical process comprising exposing a first agent to asecond agent in proximity to a chemFET sensor, and measuring anelectrical output at the chemFET sensor after exposure of the firstagent to the second agent, wherein an electrical output at the chemFETsensor after exposure of the first agent to the second agent indicatesan interaction between the first agent and the second agent, and whereinthe chemFET sensor is present in a chemFET array having at least 2chemFET sensors.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for monitoring abiological or chemical process comprising exposing a first agent to asecond agent in proximity to a chemFET sensor, and measuring anelectrical output at the chemFET sensor after exposure of the firstagent to the second agent, wherein an electrical output at the chemFETsensor after exposure of the first agent to the second agent indicatesan interaction between the first agent and the second agent, wherein thechemFET sensor is present in a chemFET array having at least 2 chemFETsensors, and wherein each chemFET sensor is coupled to a separatereaction chamber.

In another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus comprisingnucleic acids or a plurality of nucleic acids attached to a chemFETarray comprising 10⁴ chemFETs.

In another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus comprising aprotein or a plurality of proteins attached to a chemFET comprising 10⁴chemFETs.

In another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus comprising apeptide or a plurality of peptides attached to a chemFET arraycomprising 10⁴ chemFET sensors.

In various embodiments, the chemFET is coupled to a reaction chamberarray.

In still another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus comprisinga cell culture disposed on a chemFET or a chemFET array.

In still another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus comprisinga nucleic acid array disposed on a chemFET array, optionally comprisinga coupled array of reaction chambers.

In still another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus comprisinga nucleic acid array comprising a plurality of nucleic acids bound tophysically defined regions of a solid support disposed on a chemFETarray. In one embodiment, each of the physically defined regions isassociated with at least one chemFET in the array. In one embodiment,the nucleic acid array comprises a plurality of reaction chambers. Inone embodiment, each physically defined region is associated with asingle reaction chamber.

It is to be understood that any of the chemFET arrays described hereinmay comprise 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,19, 20, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 10³, 10⁴, 10⁵, 10⁶, 10⁷, or morechemFET sensors. In some embodiments, the chemFET array comprises 104chemFET or more than 104 chemFET. When used, reaction chamber arraysthat are in contact with or capacitively coupled to chemFET arrayssimilarly may comprise 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,17, 18, 19, 20, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 10³, 10⁴, 10⁵, 10⁶, 10⁷, ormore reaction chambers. It is also to be understood that, as used hereinparticularly with respect to arrays, an array that comprises, forexample, 5 elements (such as sensors or reaction chambers) has at least5 elements and may have more. An array that comprises more than, forexample, 5 elements has at least 6 elements and may have more. It isfurther intended that aspects and embodiments described herein that“comprise” elements and/or steps also fully support and embrace aspectsand embodiments that “consist of” or “consist essentially of” suchelements and/or steps.

In some embodiments, the center-to-center distance between adjacentsensors and/or adjacent reaction chambers is about 1-10 μm, about 1-9μm, or about 2-9 μm, about 1 μm, about 2 μm, about 3 μm, about 4 μm,about 5 μm, about 6 μm, about 7 μm, about 8 μm, or about 9 μm.

In one embodiment the plurality of nucleic acids is homogeneous, whilein another embodiment the plurality of nucleic acids is not homogeneous.In one embodiment, the nucleic acid has a length of less than 1000 basesin length, or the plurality of nucleic acid has an average length ofless than 1000 bases in length.

In one embodiment, the nucleic acid or the plurality of nucleic acids issingle stranded. In another embodiment, the nucleic acid or theplurality of nucleic acids is double stranded.

In one embodiment, the nucleic acid or the plurality of nucleic acids isDNA, RNA, miRNA, or cDNA. In another embodiment, the nucleic acid or theplurality of nucleic acids is an aptamer.

In various embodiments, the protein is an antibody or an antigen-bindingantibody fragment, a tyrosine kinase receptor, a transcription factor, ahormone, or an enzyme.

In one embodiment, the nucleic acid or the protein is attachedcovalently to the chemFET array. In another embodiment, the nucleic acidor the protein is attached non-covalently to the chemFET array.

In other embodiments, the analyte of interest is hydrogen ion, and/orthe ISFET arrays are specifically configured to measure changes in H⁺concentration (i.e., changes in pH).

In other embodiments, biological or chemical reactions may be monitored,and the chemFET arrays may be specifically configured to measurehydrogen ions and/or one or more other analytes that provide relevantinformation relating to the occurrence and/or progress of a particularbiological or chemical process of interest.

Various embodiments may be embraced in the various foregoing aspects ofthe invention and these are recited below once for convenience andbrevity.

In various embodiments, the chemFET comprises a silicon nitridepassivation layer. In some embodiments, the chemFET comprises apassivation layer attached to inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) receptors.The chemFET may comprise a passivation layer that is or is not attached(whether covalently or non-covalently) to a nucleic acid or a protein ora polysaccharide.

In some embodiments, each reaction chamber is in contact or iscapacitively coupled with a single chemFET.

In some embodiments, the reaction chamber has a volume of equal to orless than about 1 picoliter (pL), including less than 0.5 μL, less than0.1 μL, less than 0.05 μL, less than 0.01 μL, less than 0.005 μL.

In some embodiments, the chemFET array comprises equal rows and columnsof sensors such as 512 rows and 512 columns of sensors, although it notso limited.

The reaction chambers may have a square cross section, for example attheir base or bottom. Examples include an 8 μm by 8 μm cross section, a4 μm by 4 μm cross section, or a 1.5 μm by 1.5 μm cross section.Alternatively, they may have a rectangular cross section, for example attheir base or bottom. Examples include an 8 μm by 12 μm cross section, a4 μm by 6 μm cross section, or a 1.5 μm by 2.25 μm cross section.

In various aspects, the chemFET arrays may be fabricated usingconventional CMOS (or biCMOS or other suitable) processing technologies,and are particularly configured to facilitate the rapid acquisition ofdata from the entire array (scanning all of the pixels to obtaincorresponding pixel output signals).

With respect to analyte detection and measurement, it should beappreciated that in various embodiments discussed herein, one or moreanalytes measured by a chemFET array according to the present disclosuremay include any of a variety of biological or chemical substances thatprovide relevant information regarding a biological or chemical process(e.g., binding events such as hybridization of nucleic acids to eachother, antigen-antibody binding, receptor-ligand binding,enzyme-inhibitor binding, enzyme-substrate binding, and the like). Insome aspects, the ability to measure absolute or relative as well asstatic and/or dynamic levels and/or concentrations of one or moreanalytes, in addition to merely determining the presence or absence ofan analyte, provides valuable information in connection with biologicaland chemical processes. In other aspects, mere determination of thepresence or absence of an analyte or analytes of interest may providevaluable information may be sufficient.

A chemFET array according to various inventive embodiments of thepresent disclosure may be configured for sensitivity to any one or moreof a variety of analytes. In one embodiment, one or more chemFETs of anarray may be particularly configured for sensitivity to one or moreanalytes, and in other embodiments different chemFETs of a given arraymay be configured for sensitivity to different analytes. For example, inone embodiment, one or more sensors (pixels) of the array may include afirst type of chemFET configured to be sensitive to a first analyte, andone or more other sensors of the array may include a second type ofchemFET configured to be sensitive to a second analyte different fromthe first analyte. In one embodiment, the first and second analytes maybe related to each other. As an example, the first and second analytesmay be byproducts of the same biological or chemical reaction/processand therefore they may be detected concurrently to confirm theoccurrence of a reaction (or lack thereof). Such redundancy is preferredin some analyte detection methods. Of course, it should be appreciatedthat more than two different types of chemFETs may be employed in anygiven array to detect and/or measure different types of analytes, andoptionally to monitor biological or chemical processes such as bindingevents. In general, it should be appreciated in any of the embodimentsof sensor arrays discussed herein that a given sensor array may be“homogeneous” and thereby consist of chemFETs of substantially similaror identical type that detect and/or measure the same analyte (e.g., pHor other ion concentration), or a sensor array may be “heterogeneous”and include chemFETs of different types to detect and/or measuredifferent analytes. In another embodiment, the sensors in an array maybe configured to detect and/or measure a single type (or class) ofanalyte even though the species of that type (or class) detected and/ormeasured may be different between sensors. As an example, all thesensors in an array may be configured to detect and/or measure nucleicacids, but each sensor detects and/or measures a different nucleic acid.

The invention has specifically improved upon the ISFET array design ofMilgrew et al. discussed above in connection with FIGS. 1-7, as well asother conventional ISFET array designs, so as to significantly reducepixel size, and thereby increase the number of pixels of a chemFET arrayfor a given semiconductor die size (i.e., increase pixel density). Invarious embodiments, this increase in pixel density is accomplishedwhile at the same time increasing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) ofoutput signals corresponding to monitored biological and chemicalprocesses, and the speed with which such output signals may be read fromthe array. In particular, it has been recognized and appreciated that byrelaxing requirements for chemFET linearity and focusing on a morelimited measurement output signal range (e.g., output signalscorresponding to a pH range of from approximately 7 to 9 or smaller,rather than 1 to 14, as well as output signals that do not necessarilyrelate significantly to pH), individual pixel complexity and size may besignificantly reduced, thereby facilitating the realization of verylarge scale dense chemFET arrays. It has also been recognized andappreciated that alternative less complex approaches to pixel selectionin an chemFET array (e.g., alternatives to the row and column decoderapproach employed in the design of Milgrew et al. as shown in FIG. 7,whose complexity scales with array size), as well as various dataprocessing techniques involving ISFET response modeling and dataextrapolation based on such modeling, facilitate rapid acquisition ofdata from significantly large and dense arrays.

With respect to chemFET array fabrication, it has been furtherrecognized and appreciated that various techniques employed in aconventional CMOS fabrication process, as well as variouspost-fabrication processing steps (wafer handling, cleaning, dicing,packaging, etc.), may in some instances adversely affect performance ofthe resulting chemFET array. For example, with reference again to FIG.1, one potential issue relates to trapped charge that may be induced inthe gate oxide 65 during etching of metals associated with the floatinggate structure 70, and how such trapped charge may affect chemFETthreshold voltage V_(TH). Another potential issue relates to thedensity/porosity of the chemFET passivation layer (e.g., see ISFETpassivation layer 72 in FIG. 1) resulting from low-temperature materialdeposition processes commonly employed in aluminum metal-based CMOSfabrication. While such low-temperature processes generally provide anadequate passivation layer for conventional CMOS devices, they mayresult in a somewhat low-density and porous passivation layer which maybe potentially problematic for chemFETs in contact with an analytesolution; in particular, a low-density porous passivation layer overtime may absorb and become saturated with analytes or other substancesin the solution, which may in turn cause an undesirable time-varyingdrift in the chemFETs threshold voltage V_(TH). This phenomenon may inturn impede accurate measurements of one or more particular analytes ofinterest. In view of the foregoing, other inventive embodimentsdisclosed herein relate to methods and apparatuses which mitigatepotentially adverse effects on chemFET performance that may arise fromvarious aspects of fabrication and post-fabrication processing/handlingof chemFET arrays.

Accordingly, one embodiment of the present invention is directed to anapparatus, comprising an array of CMOS-fabricated sensors, each sensorcomprising one chemFET (and in some cases, consisting of one chemFET butoptionally having other elements) and occupying an area on a surface ofthe array of 10 μm² or less.

Another embodiment is directed to a sensor array comprising atwo-dimensional array of electronic sensors including at least 512 rowsand at least 512 columns of the electronic sensors, each sensorcomprising one chemFET (and in some cases, consisting of one chemFET butoptionally having other elements) configured to provide at least oneoutput signal representing a presence and/or concentration of an analyteproximate to a surface of the two-dimensional array.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus comprising an array ofCMOS-fabricated sensors, each sensor comprising one chemFET (and in somecases, consisting of one chemFET but optionally having other elements).The array of CMOS-fabricated sensors includes more than 256 sensors, anda collection of chemFET output signals from all chemFETs of the arrayconstitutes a frame of data. The apparatus further comprises controlcircuitry coupled to the array and configured to generate at least onearray output signal to provide multiple frames of data from the array ata frame rate of at least 1 frame per second. In one aspect, the framerate may be at least 10 frames per second. In another aspect, the framerate may be at least 20 frames per second. In yet other aspects, theframe rate may be at least 30, 40, 50, 70 or up to 100 frames persecond.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus comprising an array ofCMOS-fabricated sensors, each sensor comprising a chemFET (and in somecases, consisting of one chemFET but optionally having other elements).The chemFET comprises a floating gate structure, and a source and adrain having a first semiconductor type and fabricated in a regionhaving a second semiconductor type, wherein there is no electricalconductor that electrically connects the region having the secondsemiconductor type to either the source or the drain.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus comprising an array ofelectronic sensors, each sensor consisting of three FETs including onechemFET.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus comprising an array ofelectronic sensors, each sensor comprising three or fewer FETs, whereinthe three or fewer FETs includes one chemFET.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus comprising an array ofelectronic sensors, each sensor comprising a plurality of FETs includingone chemFET, and a plurality of electrical conductors electricallyconnected to the plurality of FETs, wherein the plurality of FETs arearranged such that the plurality of electrical conductors includes nomore than four conductors traversing an area occupied by each sensor andinterconnecting multiple sensors of the array.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus comprising an array ofCMOS-fabricated sensors, each sensor comprising a plurality of FETsincluding one chemFET, wherein all of the FETs in each sensor are of asame channel type and are implemented in a single semiconductor regionof an array substrate.

Another embodiment is directed to a sensor array comprising a pluralityof electronic sensors arranged in a plurality of rows and a plurality ofcolumns. Each sensor comprises one chemFET configured to provide atleast one and in some instances at least two output signals representinga presence and/or a concentration of an analyte proximate to a surfaceof the array. For each column of the plurality of columns, the arrayfurther comprises column circuitry configured to provide a constantdrain current and a constant drain-to-source voltage to respectivechemFETs in the column, the column circuitry including two operationalamplifiers and a diode-connected FET arranged in a Kelvin bridgeconfiguration with the respective chemFETs to provide the constantdrain-to-source voltage.

Another embodiment is directed to a sensor array, comprising a pluralityof electronic sensors arranged in a plurality of rows and a plurality ofcolumns. Each sensor comprises one chemFET configured to provide atleast one output signal and in some instances at least two outputsignals representing a concentration of ions in a solution proximate toa surface of the array. The array further comprises at least one rowselect shift register to enable respective rows of the plurality ofrows, and at least one column select shift register to acquire chemFEToutput signals from respective columns of the plurality of columns.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus, comprising an array ofCMOS-fabricated sensors, each sensor comprising a chemFET. The chemFETcomprises a floating gate structure, and a source and a drain having afirst semiconductor type and fabricated in a region having a secondsemiconductor type, wherein there is no electrical conductor thatelectrically connects the region having the second semiconductor type toeither the source or the drain. The array includes a two-dimensionalarray of at least 512 rows and at least 512 columns of theCMOS-fabricated sensors. Each sensor consists of three FETs includingthe chemFET, and each sensor includes a plurality of electricalconductors electrically connected to the three FETs. The three FETs arearranged such that the plurality of electrical conductors includes nomore than four conductors traversing an area occupied by each sensor andinterconnecting multiple sensors of the array. All of the FETs in eachsensor are of a same channel type and implemented in a singlesemiconductor region of an array substrate. A collection of chemFEToutput signals from all chemFETs of the array constitutes a frame ofdata. The apparatus further comprises control circuitry coupled to thearray and configured to generate at least one array output signal toprovide multiple frames of data from the array at a frame rate of atleast 20 frames per second.

Another embodiment is directed to a method for processing an array ofCMOS-fabricated sensors, each sensor comprising a chemFET. The methodcomprises a) dicing a semiconductor wafer including the array to form atleast one diced portion including the array, and b) performing a forminggas anneal on the at least one diced portion.

Another embodiment is directed to a method for manufacturing an array ofchemFETs. The method comprises fabricating an array of chemFETs,depositing on the array a dielectric material, applying a forming gasanneal to the array before a dicing step, dicing the array, and applyinga forming gas anneal after the dicing step. The method may furthercomprise testing the semiconductor wafer between one or more depositionsteps.

Another embodiment is directed to a method for processing an array ofCMOS-fabricated sensors. Each sensor comprises a chemFET having achemically-sensitive passivation layer of silicon nitride and/or siliconoxynitride deposited via plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition(PECVD). The method comprises depositing at least one additionalpassivation material on the chemically-sensitive passivation layer so asto reduce a porosity and/or increase a density of the passivation layer.

It should be appreciated that all combinations of the foregoing conceptsand additional concepts discussed in greater detail below (provided suchconcepts are not mutually inconsistent) are contemplated as being partof the inventive subject matter disclosed herein. In particular, allcombinations of claimed subject matter appearing at the end of thisdisclosure are contemplated as being part of the inventive subjectmatter disclosed herein. It should also be appreciated that terminologyexplicitly employed herein that also may appear in any disclosureincorporated by reference should be accorded a meaning most consistentwith the particular concepts disclosed herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the drawings, like reference characters generally refer to the sameparts throughout the different views. Also, the drawings are notnecessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon generallyillustrating the various concepts discussed herein.

FIG. 1 illustrates a cross-section of a p-type (p-channel) ion-sensitivefield effect transistor (ISFET) fabricated using a conventional CMOSprocess.

FIG. 2 illustrates an electric circuit representation of the p-channelISFET shown in FIG. 1.

FIG. 2A illustrates an exemplary ISFET transient response to astep-change in ion concentration of an analyte.

FIG. 3 illustrates one column of a two-dimensional ISFET array based onthe ISFET shown in FIG. 1.

FIG. 4 illustrates a transmission gate including a p-channel MOSFET andan n-channel MOSFET that is employed in each pixel of the array columnshown in FIG. 3.

FIG. 5 is a diagram similar to FIG. 1, illustrating a widercross-section of a portion of a substrate corresponding to one pixel ofthe array column shown in FIG. 3, in which the ISFET is shown alongsidetwo n-channel MOSFETs also included in the pixel.

FIG. 6 is a diagram similar to FIG. 5, illustrating a cross-section ofanother portion of the substrate corresponding to one pixel of the arraycolumn shown in FIG. 3, in which the ISFET is shown alongside thep-channel MOSFET of the transmission gate shown in FIG. 4.

FIG. 7 illustrates an example of a complete two-dimensional ISFET pixelarray based on the column design of FIG. 3, together with accompanyingrow and column decoder circuitry and measurement readout circuitry.

FIG. 8 generally illustrates a nucleic acid processing system comprisinga large scale chemFET array, according to one inventive embodiment ofthe present disclosure.

FIG. 9 illustrates one column of an chemFET array similar to that shownin FIG. 8, according to one inventive embodiment of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 9A illustrates a circuit diagram for an exemplary amplifieremployed in the array column shown in FIG. 9.

FIG. 9B is a graph of amplifier bias vs. bandwidth, according to oneinventive embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10 illustrates a top view of a chip layout design for a pixel ofthe column of an chemFET array shown in FIG. 9, according to oneinventive embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10A illustrates a top view of a chip layout design for a cluster offour neighboring pixels of an chemFET array shown in FIG. 9, accordingto another inventive embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 11A shows a composite cross-sectional view along the line I-I ofthe pixel shown in FIG. 10, including additional elements on the righthalf of FIG. 10 between the lines II-II and III-III, illustrating alayer-by-layer view of the pixel fabrication according to one inventiveembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 11A-1 shows a composite cross-sectional view of multipleneighboring pixels, along the line I-I of one of the pixels shown inFIG. 10A, including additional elements of the pixel between the linesII-II, illustrating a layer-by-layer view of pixel fabrication accordingto another inventive embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 11B(1)-(3) provide the chemical structures of ten PPi receptors(compounds 1 through 10).

FIG. 11C(1) is a schematic of a synthesis protocol for compound 7 fromFIG. 11B(3).

FIG. 11C(2) is a schematic of a synthesis protocol for compound 8 fromFIG. 11B(3).

FIG. 11C(3) is a schematic of a synthesis protocol for compound 9 fromFIG. 11B(3).

FIGS. 11D(1) and (2) are schematics illustrating a variety ofchemistries that can be applied to the passivation layer in order tobind molecular recognition compounds (such as but not limited to PPireceptors).

FIG. 11E is a schematic of attachment of compound 7 from FIG. 11B(3) toa metal oxide surface.

FIGS. 12A1 through 12A12 provide top views of each of the fabricationlayers shown in FIG. 11A, according to one inventive embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIGS. 12B1 through 12B12 provide top views of each of the fabricationlayers shown in FIG. 11A-1, according to another inventive embodiment ofthe present disclosure.

FIG. 13 illustrates a block diagram of an exemplary CMOS IC chipimplementation of an chemFET sensor array similar to that shown in FIG.8, based on the column and pixel designs shown in FIGS. 9-12A, accordingto one inventive embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 14 illustrates a row select shift register of the array shown inFIG. 13, according to one inventive embodiment of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 15 illustrates one of two column select shift registers of thearray shown in FIG. 13, according to one inventive embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 16 illustrates one of two output drivers of the array shown in FIG.13, according to one inventive embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 17 illustrates a block diagram of the chemFET sensor array of FIG.13 coupled to an array controller, according to one inventive embodimentof the present disclosure.

FIG. 18 illustrates an exemplary timing diagram for various signalsprovided by the array controller of FIG. 17, according to one inventiveembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 18A illustrates another exemplary timing diagram for varioussignals provided by the array controller of FIG. 17, according to oneinventive embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 18B shows a flow chart illustrating an exemplary method forprocessing and correction of array data acquired at high acquisitionrates, according to one inventive embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 18C and 18D illustrate exemplary pixel voltages showingpixel-to-pixel transitions in a given array output signal, according toone embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 19-20 illustrate block diagrams of alternative CMOS IC chipimplementations of chemFET sensor arrays, according to other inventiveembodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 20A illustrates a top view of a chip layout design for a pixel ofthe chemFET array shown in FIG. 20, according to another inventiveembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 21-23 illustrate block diagrams of additional alternative CMOS ICchip implementations of chemFET sensor arrays, according to otherinventive embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 24 illustrates the pixel design of FIG. 9 implemented with ann-channel chemFET and accompanying n-channel MOSFETs, according toanother inventive embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 25-27 illustrate alternative pixel designs and associated columncircuitry for chemFET arrays according to other inventive embodiments ofthe present disclosure.

FIGS. 28A and 28B are isometric illustrations of portions of microwellarrays as employed herein, showing round wells and rectangular wells, toassist three-dimensional visualization of the array structures.

FIG. 29 is a diagrammatic depiction of a top view of one corner (i.e.,the lower left corner) of the layout of a chip showing an array ofindividual ISFET sensors on a CMOS die.

FIG. 30 is an illustration of an example of a layout for a portion of a(typically chromium) mask for a one-sensor-per-well embodiment of theabove-described sensor array, corresponding to the portion of the dieshown in FIG. 29.

FIG. 31 is a corresponding layout for a mask for a 4-sensors-per-wellembodiment.

FIG. 32 is an illustration of a second mask used to mask an area whichsurrounds the array, to build a collar or wall (or basin, using thatterm in the geological sense) of resist which surrounds the active arrayof sensors on a substrate, as shown in FIG. 33A.

FIG. 33 is an illustration of the resulting basin.

FIG. 33A is an illustration of a three-layer PCM process for making themicrowell array.

FIG. 33B is a diagrammatic cross-section of a microwell with a “bump”feature etched into the bottom.

FIG. 33B-1 is an image from a scanning electron microscope showing incross-section a portion of an array architecture as taught herein, withmicrowells formed in a layer of silicon dioxide over ISFETs.

FIG. 33B-2 is a diagrammatic illustration of a microwell incross-section, the microwell being produced as taught herein and havingsloped sides, and showing how a bead of a correspondingly appropriatediameter larger than that of the well bottom can be spaced from the wellbottom by interference with the well sidewalls.

FIG. 33B-3 is another diagrammatic illustration of such a microwell withbeads of different diameters shown, and indicating optional use ofpacking beads below the nucleic acid-carrying bead such as aDNA-carrying bead

FIGS. 34-37 diagrammatically illustrate a first example of a suitableexperiment apparatus incorporating a fluidic interface with the sensorarray, with FIG. 35 providing a cross-section through the FIG. 34apparatus along section line 35-35′ and FIG. 36 expanding part of FIG.35, in perspective, and FIG. 37 further expanding a portion of thestructure to make the fluid flow more visible.

FIG. 38 is a diagrammatic illustration of a substrate with an etchedphotoresist layer beginning the formation of an example flow cell of acertain configuration.

FIGS. 39-41 are diagrams of masks suitable for producing a firstconfiguration of flow cell consistent with FIG. 38.

FIGS. 42-54 (but not including FIGS. 42A-42L) and 57-58 are pairs ofpartly isometric, sectional views of example apparatus and enlargements,showing ways of introducing a reference electrode into, and forming, aflow cell and flow chamber, using materials such as plastic and PDMS.

FIG. 42A is an illustration of a possible cross-sectional configurationof a non-rectangular flow chamber antechamber (diffuser section) for useto promote laminar flow into a flow cell as used in the arrangementsshown herein;

FIGS. 42B-42F are diagrammatic illustrations of examples of flow cellstructures for unifying fluid flow.

FIG. 42F1 is a diagrammatic illustration of an example of a ceilingbaffle arrangement for a flow cell in which fluid is introduced at onecorner of the chip and exits at a diagonal corner, the bafflearrangement facilitating a desired fluid flow across the array.

FIGS. 42F2-42F8 comprise a set of illustrations of an exemplary flowcell member that may be manufactured by injection molding and mayincorporate baffles to facilitate fluid flow, as well as a metalizedsurface for serving as a reference electrode, including an illustrationof said member mounted to a sensor array package over a sensor array, toform a flow chamber thereover.

FIGS. 42G and 42H are diagrammatic illustrations of alternativeembodiments of flow cells in which fluid flow is introduced to themiddle of the chip assembly.

FIGS. 42I and 42J are cross-sectional illustrations of the type of flowcell embodiments shown in FIGS. 42G and 42H, mounted on a chip assembly;

FIGS. 42K and 42L are diagrammatic illustrations of flow cells in whichthe fluid is introduced at a corner of the chip assembly.

FIG. 42M is a diagrammatic illustration of fluid flow from one corner ofan array on a chip assembly to an opposite corner, in apparatus such asthat depicted in FIGS. 42K and 42L.

FIGS. 55 and 56 are schematic, cross-sectional views of two-layer glass(or plastic) arrangements for manufacturing fluidic apparatus formounting onto a chip for use as taught herein.

FIGS. 57 and 58 are schematic embodiments of a fluidic assembly.

FIGS. 59A-59C are illustrations of the pieces for two examples oftwo-piece injection molded parts for forming a flow cell.

FIG. 60 is a schematic illustration, in cross-section, for introducing astainless steel capillary tube as an electrode, into a downstream portof a flow cell such as the flow cells of FIGS. 59A-59C, or other flowcells.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Following below are more detailed descriptions of various conceptsrelated to, and embodiments of, inventive methods and apparatus relatingto large scale chemFET arrays for detection and/or measurement oranalytes. It should be appreciated that various concepts introducedabove and discussed in greater detail below may be implemented in any ofnumerous ways, as the disclosed concepts are not limited to anyparticular manner of implementation. Examples of specificimplementations and applications are provided primarily for illustrativepurposes.

Various inventive embodiments according to the present disclosure aredirected at least in part to a semiconductor-based/microfluidic hybridsystem that combines the power of microelectronics with thebiocompatibility of a microfluidic system. In some examples below, themicroelectronics portion of the hybrid system is implemented in CMOStechnology for purposes of illustration. It should be appreciated,however, that the disclosure is not intended to be limiting in thisrespect, as other semiconductor-based technologies may be utilized toimplement various aspects of the microelectronics portion of the systemsdiscussed herein.

One embodiment disclosed herein is directed to a large sensor array ofchemFETs, wherein the individual chemFET sensor elements or “pixels” ofthe array are configured to detect analyte presence (or absence),analyte levels (or amounts), and/or analyte concentration in anunmanipulated sample, or as a result of chemical and/or biologicalprocesses (e.g., chemical reactions, cell cultures, neural activity,nucleic acid sequencing processes, etc.) occurring in proximity to thearray. Examples of chemFETs contemplated by various embodimentsdiscussed in greater detail below include, but are not limited to,ISFETs and EnFETs. In one exemplary implementation, one or moremicrofluidic structures is/are fabricated above the chemFET sensor arrayto provide for containment and/or confinement of a biological orchemical reaction in which an analyte of interest may be produced orconsumed, as the case may be. For example, in one implementation, themicrofluidic structure(s) may be configured as one or more “wells”(e.g., small reaction chambers or “reaction wells”) disposed above oneor more sensors of the array, such that the one or more sensors overwhich a given well is disposed detect and measure analyte presence,level, and/or concentration in the given well.

In important aspects and embodiments, the chemFET array comprises 104chemFET and/or the center-to-center spacing between adjacent chemFETs is1-10 μm.

In another exemplary implementation, the invention encompasses a systemfor high-throughput sequencing comprising at least one two-dimensionalarray of reaction chambers, wherein each reaction chamber is coupled toa chemFET and each reaction chamber is no greater than 10 μm³ (i.e., 1μL) in volume. Preferably, each reaction chamber is no greater than 0.34pL, and more preferably no greater than 0.096 pL or even 0.012 pL involume. A reaction chamber can optionally be 2², 3², 4², 5², 6², 7², 8²,9², or 10² square microns in cross-sectional area at the top.Preferably, the array has at least 100, 1,000, 10,000, 100,000, or1,000,000 reaction chambers. The reaction chambers may be capacitivelycoupled to the chemFETs, and preferably are capacitively coupled to thechemFETs.

The device may comprise an array of chemFETs with an array ofmicrofluidic reaction chambers and/or a semiconductor material coupledto a dielectric material.

The above-described method may be automated via robotics. In addition,the information obtained via the signal from the chemFET may be providedto a personal computer, a personal digital assistant, a cellular phone,a video game system, or a television so that a user can monitor theprogress of reactions remotely.

In some embodiments, such a chemFET array/microfluidics hybrid structuremay be used to analyze solution(s)/material(s) of interest potentiallycontaining analytes such as nucleic acids. For example, such structuresmay be employed to monitor sequencing of nucleic acids. Detection and/orsequencing of analytes such as nucleic acids may be performed todetermine partial or complete nucleotide sequence of a nucleic acid, todetect the presence and in some instances nature of a single nucleotidepolymorphism in a nucleic acid, to determine what therapeutic regimenwill be most effective to treat a subject having a particular conditionas can be determined by the subject's genetic make-up, to determine andcompare nucleic acid expression profiles of two or more states (e.g.,comparing expression profiles of diseased and normal tissue, orcomparing expression profiles of untreated tissue and tissue treatedwith drug, enzymes, radiation or chemical treatment), to haplotype asample (e.g., comparing genes or variations in genes on each of the twoalleles present in a human subject), to karyotype a sample (e.g.,analyzing chromosomal make-up of a cell or a tissue such as an embryo,to detect gross chromosomal or other genomic abnormalities), and togenotype (e.g., analyzing one or more genetic loci to determine forexample carrier status and/or species-genus relationships).

The systems described herein can also be used to aid in theidentification and treatment of disease. For example, the system can beused for identifying a sequence associated with a particular disease orfor identifying a sequence associated with a positive response to aparticular active ingredient.

In one embodiment, the invention encompasses a method for identifying asequence associated with a condition comprising delivering nucleic acidsfrom a plurality of subjects having the condition to a sequencingapparatus comprising a two-dimensional array of reaction chambers,wherein each of the reaction chambers is capacitively coupled to achemFET, determining sequences of the nucleic acids from signal fromsaid chemFETs, and identifying a common sequence between the DNA fromthe plurality of subjects. Preferably, the subject is a mammal, and morepreferably a human. Preferably, the condition is cancer, animmunosuppressant condition, a neurological condition, or a viralinfection.

In another embodiment, the invention encompasses a method foridentifying a sequence associated with a positive response to aparticular active agent, comprising sequencing DNA from a plurality ofsubjects that have exhibited a positive response and from a plurality ofsubjects having a negative response to an active agent using one or moresequencing apparatuses, wherein each sequencing apparatus comprises anarray of chemFETs; and identifying a common DNA sequence in theplurality of subjects that have exhibited a positive response or fromthe subjects that have exhibited a negative response that is not presentin the other plurality of subjects. Preferably, the subject is a mammal,and more preferably a human.

It should be appreciated, however, that while some illustrative examplesof the concepts disclosed herein focus on nucleic acid processing, theinvention contemplates a broader application of these concepts and isnot intended to be limited to these examples.

FIG. 8 generally illustrates a nucleic acid processing system 1000comprising a large scale chemFET array, according to one inventiveembodiment of the present disclosure. An example of a nucleic acidprocessing system is a nucleic acid sequencing system. In the discussionthat follows, the chemFET sensors of the array are described forpurposes of illustration as ISFETs configured for sensitivity to staticand/or dynamic ion concentration, including but not limited to hydrogenion concentration and/or concentration of other ionic species involvedin nucleic acid processing. However, it should be appreciated that thepresent disclosure is not limited in this respect, and that in any ofthe embodiments discussed herein in which ISFETs are employed as anillustrative example, other types of chemFETs may be similarly employedin alternative embodiments, as discussed in further detail below.Similarly it should be appreciated that various aspects and embodimentsof the invention may employ ISFETs as sensors yet detect one or moreionic species that are not hydrogen ions.

The system 1000 includes a semiconductor/microfluidics hybrid structure300 comprising an ISFET sensor array 100 and a microfluidics flow cell200. In one aspect, the flow cell 200 may comprise a number of wells(not shown in FIG. 8) disposed above corresponding sensors of the ISFETarray 100. In another aspect, the flow cell 200 is configured tofacilitate the sequencing of one or more identical template nucleicacids disposed in the flow cell via the controlled and ordered admission(or introduction) to the flow cell of a number of sequencing reagents272 (e.g., bases dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP, generically referred to hereinas dNTP, divalent cations such as but not limited to Mg²⁺, washsolutions, and the like).

As illustrated in FIG. 8, the admission of the sequencing reagents tothe flow cell 200 may be accomplished via one or more valves 270 and oneor more pumps 274 that are controlled by computer 260. A number oftechniques may be used to admit (i.e., introduce) the various processingmaterials (i.e., solutions, samples, reaction reagents, wash solutions,and the like) to the wells of such a flow cell. As illustrated in FIG.8, reagents including bases may be admitted to the flow cell (e.g., viathe computer controlled valve 270 and pumps 274) from which they diffuseinto the wells, or reagents may be added to the flow cell by other meanssuch as an ink jet. In yet another example, the flow cell 200 may notcontain any wells, and diffusion properties of the reagents may beexploited to limit cross-talk between respective sensors of the ISFETarray 100.

In still other embodiments, the wells can be coated with one or morenucleic acids, including for example a pair of primer nucleic acids, anda nucleic acid having adaptor nucleotide sequences complementary to theprimer nucleotide sequence may be introduced into the wells. These andother agents useful in immobilizing nucleic acids may be provided to thesensor array, to individual dies as part of the chip packaging, or towells immediately before the processing of a sample. Other methodsinvolving solgels may be used to immobilize agents such as nucleic acidsnear the surface of the ISFET array.

As will be discussed in greater detail herein, in some aspectscontemplated by the invention, nucleic acids may be amplified prior toor after placement in the well. Various methods exist to amplify nucleicacids. Thus, in one aspect, once a nucleic acid is loaded into a well,amplification may be performed in the well, and the resulting amplifiedproduct may be further analyzed. Amplification methods include but arenot limited to bridge amplification, rolling circle amplification, orother strategies using isothermal or non-isothermal amplificationtechniques.

In sum, the flow cell 200 in the system of FIG. 8 may be configured in avariety of manners to provide one or more analytes (or one or morereaction solutions) in proximity to the ISFET array 100. For example, anucleic acid may be directly attached or applied in suitable proximityto one or more pixels of the sensor array 100, or on a support material(e.g., one or more “beads”) located above the sensor array. Processingreagents (e.g., enzymes such as polymerases) can also be placed on thesensors directly, or on one or more solid supports in proximity to thesensors. It is to be understood that the device may be used withoutwells or beads for a number of biosensor applications involving thedetection and/or measurement of at least one sensor-detectable product(e.g., ion concentration change).

In the system 1000 of FIG. 8, according to one embodiment the ISFETsensor array 100 monitors ionic species, and in particular, changes inthe levels/amounts and/or concentration of ionic species. In someembodiments, the species are those that result from a nucleic acidsynthesis or sequencing reaction. One particularly important ionicspecies is the PPi that is released as a result of nucleotideincorporation. Another important species is excess nucleotides added toand remaining in the reaction chamber once a nucleic acid synthesis orsequencing reaction is complete. Such nucleotides are referred to hereinas “unincorporated nucleotides.”

As will be discussed in greater detail herein, various embodiments ofthe present invention may relate to monitoring/measurement techniquesthat involve the static and/or dynamic responses of an ISFET. In oneembodiment relating to detection of nucleotide incorporation during anucleic acid synthesis or sequencing reaction, detection/measurementtechniques particularly rely on the transient or dynamic response of anISFET (ion-step response, or “ion pulse” output), as discussed above inconnection with FIG. 2A, to detect concentration changes of variousionic species relating to a nucleic acid synthesis or sequencingreaction. Although the particular example of a nucleic acid synthesis orsequencing reaction is provided to illustrate the transient or dynamicresponse of an ISFET, it should be appreciated that according to otherembodiments, the transient or dynamic response of an ISFET as discussedbelow may be exploited for monitoring/sensing other types of chemicaland/or biological activity beyond the specific example of a nucleic acidsynthesis or sequencing reaction.

In one exemplary implementation, beyond the step-wise or essentiallyinstantaneous pH changes in the analyte solution contemplated by priorresearch efforts, detection/measurement techniques relying on thedynamic response of an ISFET according to some embodiments of thepresent invention are based at least in part on the differentialdiffusion of various ionic species proximate to the analyte/passivationlayer interface of the ISFET(s) (e.g., at the bottom of a reaction wellover an ISFET). In particular, it has been recognized and appreciatedthat if a given stimulus constituted by a change in ionic strengthproximate to the analyte/passivation layer interface, due to theappropriate diffusion of respective species of interest, occurs at arate that is significantly faster than the ability of the passivationlayer to adjust its surface charge density in response to the stimulusof the concentration change (e.g., faster than a characteristic responsetime constant τ associated with the passivation layer surface), astep-wise or essentially instantaneous change in ionic strength is notnecessarily required to observe an ion pulse output from the ISFET. Thisprinciple is applicable not only to the example of DNA sequencing, butalso to other types of chemical and chemical reaction sensing, as well.

As noted above, the ISFET may be employed to measure steady state pHvalues, since in some embodiments pH change is proportional to thenumber of nucleotides incorporated into the newly synthesized nucleicacid strand. In other embodiments discussed in greater detail below, theFET sensor array may be particularly configured for sensitivity to otheranalytes that may provide relevant information about the chemicalreactions of interest. An example of such a modification orconfiguration is the use of analyte-specific receptors to bind theanalytes of interest, as discussed in greater detail herein.

Via an array controller 250 (also under operation of the computer 260),the ISFET array may be controlled so as to acquire data (e.g., outputsignals of respective ISFETs of the array) relating to analyte detectionand/or measurements, and collected data may be processed by the computer260 to yield meaningful information associated with the processing(including sequencing) of the template nucleic acid.

With respect to the ISFET array 100 of the system 1000 shown in FIG. 8,in one embodiment the array 100 is implemented as an integrated circuitdesigned and fabricated using standard CMOS processes (e.g., 0.35micrometer process, 0.18 micrometer process), comprising all the sensorsand electronics needed to monitor/measure one or more analytes and/orreactions. With reference again to FIG. 1, one or more referenceelectrodes 76 to be employed in connection with the ISFET array 100 maybe placed in the flow cell 200 (e.g., disposed in “unused” wells of theflow cell) or otherwise exposed to a reference (e.g., one or more of thesequencing reagents 172) to establish a base line against which changesin analyte concentration proximate to respective ISFETs of the array 100are compared. The reference electrode(s) 76 may be electrically coupledto the array 100, the array controller 250 or directly to the computer260 to facilitate analyte measurements based on voltage signals obtainedfrom the array 100; in some implementations, the reference electrode(s)may be coupled to an electric ground or other predetermined potential,or the reference electrode voltage may be measured with respect toground, to establish an electric reference for ISFET output signalmeasurements, as discussed further below.

The ISFET array 100 is not limited to any particular size, as one- ortwo-dimensional arrays, including but not limited to as few as two to256 pixels (e.g., 16 by 16 pixels in a two-dimensional implementation)or as many as 54 mega-pixels (e.g., 7400 by 7400 pixels in atwo-dimensional implementation) or even greater may be fabricated andemployed for various chemical/biological analysis purposes pursuant tothe concepts disclosed herein. In one embodiment of the exemplary systemshown in FIG. 8, the individual ISFET sensors of the array may beconfigured for sensitivity to PPi, unincorporated nucleotides, hydrogenions, and the like; however, it should also be appreciated that thepresent disclosure is not limited in this respect, as individual sensorsof an ISFET sensor array may be particularly configured for sensitivityto other types of ion concentrations for a variety of applications(materials sensitive to other ions such as sodium, silver, iron,bromine, iodine, calcium, and nitrate, for example, are known).

More generally, a chemFET array according to various embodiments of thepresent disclosure may be configured for sensitivity to any one or moreof a variety of analytes. In one embodiment, one or more chemFETs of anarray may be particularly configured for sensitivity to one or moreanalytes and/or one or more binding events, and in other embodimentsdifferent chemFETs of a given array may be configured for sensitivity todifferent analytes. For example, in one embodiment, one or more sensors(pixels) of the array may include a first type of chemFET configured tobe sensitive to a first analyte, and one or more other sensors of thearray may include a second type of chemFET configured to be sensitive toa second analyte different from the first analyte. In one exemplaryimplementation, both a first and a second analyte may indicate aparticular reaction such as for example nucleotide incorporation in asequencing-by-synthesis method. Of course, it should be appreciated thatmore than two different types of chemFETs may be employed in any givenarray to detect and/or measure different types of analytes and/or otherreactions. In general, it should be appreciated in any of theembodiments of sensor arrays discussed herein that a given sensor arraymay be “homogeneous” and include chemFETs of substantially similar oridentical types to detect and/or measure a same type of analyte (e.g.,pH or other ion concentration), or a sensor array may be “heterogeneous”and include chemFETs of different types to detect and/or measuredifferent analytes. For simplicity of discussion, again the example ofan ISFET is discussed below in various embodiments of sensor arrays, butthe present disclosure is not limited in this respect, and several otheroptions for analyte sensitivity are discussed in further detail below(e.g., in connection with FIG. 11A).

The chemFET arrays configured for sensitivity to any one or more of avariety of analytes may be disposed in electronic chips, and each chipmay be configured to perform one or more different biological reactions.The electronic chips can be connected to the portions of theabove-described system which read the array output by means of pinscoded in a manner such that the pins convey information to the system asto characteristics of the array and/or what kind of biologicalreaction(s) is(are) to be performed on the particular chip.

In one embodiment, the invention encompasses an electronic chipconfigured for conducting biological reactions thereon, comprising oneor more pins for delivering information to a circuitry identifying acharacteristic of the chip and/or a type of reaction to be performed onthe chip. Such t may include, but are not limited to, a short nucleotidepolymorphism detection, short tandem repeat detection, or sequencing.

In another embodiment, the invention encompasses a system adapted toperforming more than one biological reaction on a chip comprising: achip receiving module adapted for receiving the chip; and a receiver fordetecting information from the electronic chip, wherein the informationdetermines a biological reaction to be performed on the chip. Typically,the system further comprises one or more reagents to perform theselected biological reaction.

In another embodiment, the invention encompasses an apparatus forsequencing a polymer template comprising: at least one integratedcircuit that is configured to relay information about spatial locationof a reaction chamber, type of monomer added to the spatial location,time required to complete reaction of a reagent comprising a pluralityof the monomers with an elongating polymer.

In exemplary implementations based on 0.35 micrometer CMOS processingtechniques (or CMOS processing techniques capable of smaller featuresizes), each pixel of the ISFET array 100 may include an ISFET andaccompanying enable/select components, and may occupy an area on asurface of the array of approximately ten micrometers by ten micrometers(i.e., 100 micrometers²) or less; stated differently, arrays having apitch (center of pixel-to-center of pixel spacing) on the order of 10micrometers or less may be realized. An array pitch on the order of 10micrometers or less using a 0.35 micrometer CMOS processing techniqueconstitutes a significant improvement in terms of size reduction withrespect to prior attempts to fabricate ISFET arrays, which resulted inpixel sizes on the order of at least 12 micrometers or greater.

More specifically, in some embodiments discussed further below based onthe inventive concepts disclosed herein, an array pitch of approximatelynine (9) micrometers allows an ISFET array including over 256,000 pixels(e.g., a 512 by 512 array), together with associated row and columnselect and bias/readout electronics, to be fabricated on a 7 millimeterby 7 millimeter semiconductor die, and a similar sensor array includingover four million pixels (e.g., a 2048 by 2048 array yielding over 4Mega-pixels) to be fabricated on a 21 millimeter by 21 millimeter die.In other examples, an array pitch of approximately 5 micrometers allowsan ISFET array including approximately 1.55 Mega-pixels (e.g., a 1348 by1152 array) and associated electronics to be fabricated on a 9millimeter by 9 millimeter die, and an ISFET sensor array including over14 Mega-pixels and associated electronics on a 22 millimeter by 20millimeter die. In yet other implementations, using a CMOS fabricationprocess in which feature sizes of less than 0.35 micrometers arepossible (e.g., 0.18 micrometer CMOS processing techniques), ISFETsensor arrays with a pitch significantly below 5 micrometers may befabricated (e.g., array pitch of 2.6 micrometers or pixel area of lessthan 8 or 9 micrometers²), providing for significantly dense ISFETarrays. Of course, it should be appreciated that pixel sizes greaterthan 10 micrometers (e.g., on the order of approximately 20, 50, 100micrometers or greater) may be implemented in various embodiments ofchemFET arrays according to the present disclosure also.

As will be understood by those of skill in the art, the ability tominiaturize sequencing reactions reduces the time, cost and laborinvolved in sequencing of large genomes (such as the human genome).

In other aspects of the system shown in FIG. 8, one or more arraycontrollers 250 may be employed to operate the ISFET array 100 (e.g.,selecting/enabling respective pixels of the array to obtain outputsignals representing analyte measurements). In various implementations,one or more components constituting one or more array controllers may beimplemented together with pixel elements of the arrays themselves, onthe same integrated circuit (IC) chip as the array but in a differentportion of the IC chip, or off-chip. In connection with array control,analog-to-digital conversion of ISFET output signals may be performed bycircuitry implemented on the same integrated circuit chip as the ISFETarray, but located outside of the sensor array region (locating theanalog to digital conversion circuitry outside of the sensor arrayregion allows for smaller pitch and hence a larger number of sensors, aswell as reduced noise). In various exemplary implementations discussedfurther below, analog-to-digital conversion can be 4-bit, 8-bit, 12-bit,16-bit or other bit resolutions depending on the signal dynamic rangerequired.

As used herein, an array is planar arrangement of elements such assensors or wells. The array may be one or two dimensional. A onedimensional array is an array having one column (or row) of elements inthe first dimension and a plurality of columns (or rows) in the seconddimension. An example of a one dimensional array is a 1×5 array. A twodimensional array is an array having a plurality of columns (or rows) inboth the first and the second dimension. The number of columns (or rows)in the first and second dimensions may or may not be the same. Anexample of a two dimensional array is a 5×10 array.

Having provided a general overview of the role of a chemFET (e.g.,ISFET) array 100 in an exemplary system 1000 for measuring one or moreanalytes, following below are more detailed descriptions of exemplarychemFET arrays according to various inventive embodiments of the presentdisclosure that may be employed in a variety of applications. Again, forpurposes of illustration, chemFET arrays according to the presentdisclosure are discussed below using the particular example of an ISFETarray, but other types of chemFETs may be employed in alternativeembodiments. Also, again, for purposes of illustration, chemFET arraysare discussed in the context of nucleic acid sequencing applications,however, the invention is not so limited and rather contemplates avariety of applications for the chemFET arrays described herein.

As noted above, various inventive embodiments disclosed hereinspecifically improve upon the ISFET array design of Milgrew et al.discussed above in connection with FIGS. 1-7, as well as other priorISFET array designs, so as to significantly reduce pixel size and arraypitch, and thereby increase the number of pixels of an ISFET array for agiven semiconductor die size (i.e., increase pixel density). In someimplementations, an increase in pixel density is accomplished while atthe same time increasing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of outputsignals corresponding to respective measurements relating to one or moreanalytes and the speed with which such output signals may be read fromthe array. In particular, Applicants have recognized and appreciatedthat by relaxing requirements for ISFET linearity and focusing on a morelimited signal output/measurement range (e.g., signal outputscorresponding to a pH range of from approximately 7 to 9 or smallerrather than 1 to 14, as well as output signals that may not necessarilyrelate significantly to pH changes in sample), individual pixelcomplexity and size may be significantly reduced, thereby facilitatingthe realization of very large scale dense ISFET arrays.

To this end, FIG. 9 illustrates one column 102 _(j) of an ISFET array100, according to one inventive embodiment of the present disclosure, inwhich ISFET pixel design is appreciably simplified to facilitate smallpixel size. The column 102 _(j) includes n pixels, the first and last ofwhich are shown in FIG. 9 as the pixels 105 ₁ and 105 _(n). As discussedfurther below in connection with FIG. 13, a complete two-dimensionalISFET array 100 based on the column design shown in FIG. 9 includes msuch columns 102 _(j) (j=1, 2, 3, . . . m) with successive columns ofpixels generally arranged side by side. Of course, the ISFETs may bearrayed in other than a row-column grid, such as in a honeycomb pattern.

In one aspect of the embodiment shown in FIG. 9, each pixel 105 ₁through 105 _(n) of the column 102 _(j) includes only three components,namely, an ISFET 150 (also labeled as Q1) and two MOSFET switches Q2 andQ3. The MOSFET switches Q2 and Q3 are both responsive to one of n rowselect signals ( RowSel₁ through RowSel_(n) , logic low active) so as toenable or select a given pixel of the column 102 _(j). Using pixel 105 ₁as an example that applies to all pixels of the column, the transistorswitch Q3 couples a controllable current source 106 _(j) via the line112 ₁ to the source of the ISFET 150 upon receipt of the correspondingrow select signal via the line 118 ₁. The transistor switch Q2 couplesthe source of the ISFET 150 to column bias/readout circuitry 110 _(j)via the line 114 ₁ upon receipt of the corresponding row select signal.The drain of the ISFET 150 is directly coupled via the line 116 ₁ to thebias/readout circuitry 110 _(j). Thus, only four signal lines per pixel,namely the lines 112 ₁, 114 ₁, 116 ₁ and 118 ₁, are required to operatethe three components of the pixel 105 ₁. In an array of m columns, agiven row select signal is applied simultaneously to one pixel of eachcolumn (e.g., at same positions in respective columns).

As illustrated in FIG. 9, the design for the column 102 _(j) accordingto one embodiment is based on general principles similar to thosediscussed above in connection with the column design of Milgrew et al.shown FIG. 3. In particular, the ISFET of each pixel, when enabled, isconfigured with a constant drain current I_(Dj) and a constantdrain-to-source voltage V_(DSj) to obtain an output signal V_(Sj) froman enabled pixel according to Eq. (3) above. To this end, the column 102includes a controllable current source 106 _(j), coupled to an analogcircuitry positive supply voltage VDDA and responsive to a bias voltageVB1, that is shared by all pixels of the column to provide a constantdrain current I_(Dj) to the ISFET of an enabled pixel. In one aspect,the current source 106 _(j) is implemented as a current minor includingtwo long-channel length and high output impedance MOSFETs. The columnalso includes bias/readout circuitry 110 _(j) that is also shared by allpixels of the column to provide a constant drain-to-source voltage tothe ISFET of an enabled pixel. The bias/readout circuitry 110 _(j) isbased on a Kelvin Bridge configuration and includes two operationalamplifiers 107A (A1) and 107B (A2) configured as buffer amplifiers andcoupled to analog circuitry positive supply voltage VDDA and the analogsupply voltage ground VSSA. The bias/readout circuitry also includes acontrollable current sink 108 _(j) (similar to the current source 106 j)coupled to the analog ground VSSA and responsive to a bias voltage VB2,and a diode-connected MOSFET Q6. The bias voltages VB1 and VB2 areset/controlled in tandem to provide a complimentary source and sinkcurrent. The voltage developed across the diode-connected MOSFET Q6 as aresult of the current drawn by the current sink 108, is forced by theoperational amplifiers to appear across the drain and source of theISFET of an enabled pixel as a constant drain-source voltage V_(DSj).

By employing the diode-connected MOSFET Q6 in the bias/readout circuitry110 _(j) of FIG. 9, rather than the resistor R_(SDj) as shown in thedesign of Milgrew et al. illustrated in FIG. 3, a significant advantageis provided in a CMOS fabrication process; specifically, matchingresistors can be fabricated with error tolerances generally on the orderof ±20%, whereas MOSFET matching in a CMOS fabrication process is on theorder of ±1% or better. The degree to which the component responsiblefor providing a constant ISFET drain-to-source voltage V_(DSj) can bematched from column to column significantly affects measurement accuracy(e.g., offset) from column to column. Thus, employing the MOSFET Q6rather than a resistor appreciably mitigates measurement offsets fromcolumn-to-column. Furthermore, whereas the thermal drift characteristicsof a resistor and an ISFET may be appreciably different, the thermaldrift characteristics of a MOSFET and ISFET are substantially similar,if not virtually identical; hence, any thermal drift in MOSFET Q6virtually cancels any thermal drift from ISFET Q1, resulting in greatermeasurement stability with changes in array temperature.

In FIG. 9, the column bias/readout circuitry 110 j also includessample/hold and buffer circuitry to provide an output signal V_(COLj)from the column. In particular, after one of the pixels 105 ₁ through105 _(n) is enabled or selected via the transistors Q2 and Q3 in eachpixel, the output of the amplifier 107A (A1), i.e., a buffered V_(Sj),is stored on a column sample and hold capacitor C_(sh) via operation ofa switch (e.g., a transmission gate) responsive to a column sample andhold signal COL SH. Examples of suitable capacitances for the sample andhold capacitor include, but are not limited to, a range of fromapproximately 500 fF to 2 pF. The sampled voltage is buffered via acolumn output buffer amplifier 111 j (BUF) and provided as the columnoutput signal V_(COLj). As also shown in FIG. 9, a reference voltageVREF may be applied to the buffer amplifier 111 j, via a switchresponsive to a control signal CAL, to facilitate characterization ofcolumn-to-column non-uniformities due to the buffer amplifier 111 j andthus allow post-read data correction.

FIG. 9A illustrates an exemplary circuit diagram for one of theamplifiers 107A of the bias/readout circuitry 110 j (the amplifier 107Bis implemented identically), and FIG. 9B is a graph of amplifier biasvs. bandwidth for the amplifiers 107A and 107B. As shown in FIG. 9A, theamplifier 107A employs an arrangement of multiple current mirrors basedon nine MOSFETs (M1 through M9) and is configured as a unity gainbuffer, in which the amplifier's inputs and outputs are labeled forgenerality as IN+ and VOUT, respectively. The bias voltage VB4(representing a corresponding bias current) controls the transimpedanceof the amplifier and serves as a bandwidth control (i.e., increasedbandwidth with increased current). With reference again to FIG. 9, dueto the sample and hold capacitor C_(sh), the output of the amplifier107A essentially drives a filter when the sample and hold switch isclosed. Accordingly, to achieve appreciably high data rates, the biasvoltage VB4 may be adjusted to provide higher bias currents andincreased amplifier bandwidth. From FIG. 9B, it may be observed that insome exemplary implementations, amplifier bandwidths of at least 40 MHzand significantly greater may be realized. In some implementations,amplifier bandwidths as high as 100 MHz may be appropriate to facilitatehigh data acquisition rates and relatively lower pixel sample or “dwell”times (e.g., on the order of 10 to 20 microseconds).

In another aspect of the embodiment shown in FIG. 9, unlike the pixeldesign of Milgrew et al. shown in FIG. 3, the pixels 105 ₁ through 105_(n) do not include any transmission gates or other devices that requireboth n-channel and p-channel FET components; in particular, the pixels105 ₁ through 105 _(n) of this embodiment include only FET devices of asame type (i.e., only n-channel or only p-channel). For purposes ofillustration, the pixels 105 ₁ and 105 _(n) illustrated in FIG. 9 areshown as comprising only p-channel components, i.e., two p-channelMOSFETs Q2 and Q3 and a p-channel ISFET 150. By not employing atransmission gate to couple the source of the ISFET to the bias/readoutcircuitry 110, some dynamic range for the ISFET output signal (i.e., theISFET source voltage V_(S)) may be sacrificed. However, Applicants haverecognized and appreciated that by potentially foregoing some outputsignal dynamic range (and thereby potentially limiting measurement rangefor a given static and/or dynamic chemical property, such as pH orconcentration changes of other ion species), the requirement ofdifferent type FET devices (both n-channel and p-channel) in each pixelmay be eliminated and the pixel component count reduced. As discussedfurther below in connection with FIGS. 10-12A, this significantlyfacilitates pixel size reduction. Thus, in one aspect, there is abeneficial tradeoff between reduced dynamic range and smaller pixelsize.

In yet another aspect of the embodiment shown in FIG. 9, unlike thepixel design of Milgrew et al., the ISFET 150 of each pixel 105 ₁through 105 _(n) does not have its body connection tied to its source(i.e., there is no electrical conductor coupling the body connection andsource of the ISFET such that they are forced to be at the same electricpotential during operation). Rather, the body connections of all ISFETsof the array are tied to each other and to a body bias voltage V_(BODY).While not shown explicitly in FIG. 9, the body connections for theMOSFETs Q2 and Q3 likewise are not tied to their respective sources, butrather to the body bias voltage V_(BODY). In one exemplaryimplementation based on pixels having all p-channel components, the bodybias voltage V_(BODY) is coupled to the highest voltage potentialavailable to the array (e.g., VDDA), as discussed further below inconnection with FIG. 17.

By not tying the body connection of each ISFET to its source, thepossibility of some non-zero source-to-body voltage V_(SB) may give riseto the “body effect,” as discussed above in connection with FIG. 1,which affects the threshold voltage V_(TH) of the ISFET according to anonlinear relationship (and thus, according to Eqs. (3), (4) and (5) mayaffect detection and/or measurement of analyte activity giving rise tosurface potential changes at the analyte/passivation layer interface).However, Applicants have recognized and appreciated that by focusing ona reduced ISFET output signal dynamic range, any body effect that mayarise in the ISFET from a non-zero source-to-body voltage may berelatively minimal. Thus, any measurement nonlinearity that may resultover the reduced dynamic range may be ignored as insignificant or takeninto consideration and compensated (e.g., via array calibration and dataprocessing techniques, as discussed further below in connection withFIG. 17). Applicants have also recognized and appreciated that by nottying each ISFET source to its body connection, all of the FETsconstituting the pixel may share a common body connection, therebyfurther facilitating pixel size reduction, as discussed further below inconnection with FIGS. 10-12A. Accordingly, in another aspect, there is abeneficial tradeoff between reduced linearity and smaller pixel size.

FIG. 10 illustrates a top view of a chip layout design for the pixel 105₁ shown in FIG. 9, according to one inventive embodiment of the presentdisclosure. FIG. 11A shows a composite cross-sectional view along theline I-I of the pixel shown in FIG. 10, including additional elements onthe right half of FIG. 10 between the lines II-II and III-III,illustrating a layer-by-layer view of the pixel fabrication, and FIGS.12A1 through 12A12 provide top views of each of the fabrication layersshown in FIG. 11A (the respective images of FIGS. 12A1 through 12A12 aresuperimposed one on top of another to create the pixel chip layoutdesign shown in FIG. 10). In one exemplary implementation, the pixeldesign illustrated in FIGS. 10-12A may be realized using a standard4-metal, 2-poly, 0.35 micrometer CMOS process to provide a geometricallysquare pixel having a dimension “e” as shown in FIG. 10 of approximately9 micrometers, and a dimension “f” corresponding to the ISFET sensitivearea of approximately 7 micrometers.

In the top view of FIG. 10, the ISFET 150 (labeled as Q1 in FIG. 10)generally occupies the right center portion of the pixel illustration,and the respective locations of the gate, source and drain of the ISFETare indicated as Q1 _(G), Q1 _(S) and Q1 _(D). The MOSFETs Q2 and Q3generally occupy the left center portion of the pixel illustration; thegate and source of the MOSFET Q2 are indicated as Q2 _(G) and Q2 _(S),and the gate and source of the MOSFET Q3 are indicated as Q3 _(G) and Q3_(S). In one aspect of the layout shown in FIG. 10, the MOSFETs Q2 andQ3 share a drain, indicated as Q2/3 _(D). In another aspect, it may beobserved generally from the top view of FIG. 10 that the ISFET is formedsuch that its channel lies along a first axis of the pixel (e.g.,parallel to the line I-I), while the MOSFETs Q2 and Q3 are formed suchthat their channels lie along a second axis perpendicular to the firstaxis. FIG. 10 also shows the four lines required to operate the pixel,namely, the line 112 ₁ coupled to the source of Q3, the line 114 ₁coupled to the source of Q2, the line 116 ₁ coupled to the drain of theISFET, and the row select line 118 ₁ coupled to the gates of Q2 and Q3.With reference to FIG. 9, it may be appreciated that all pixels in agiven column share the lines 112, 114 and 116 (e.g., running verticallyacross the pixel in FIG. 10), and that all pixels in a given row sharethe line 118 (e.g., running horizontally across the pixel in FIG. 10);thus, based on the pixel design of FIG. 9 and the layout shown in FIG.10, only four metal lines need to traverse each pixel.

With reference now to the cross-sectional view of FIG. 11A, highly dopedp-type regions 156 and 158 (lying along the line I-I in FIG. 10) inn-well 154 constitute the source (S) and drain (D) of the ISFET, betweenwhich lies a region 160 of the n-well in which the ISFETs p-channel isformed below the ISFETs polysilicon gate 164 and a gate oxide 165.According to one aspect of the inventive embodiment shown in FIGS. 10and 11, all of the FET components of the pixel 105 ₁ are fabricated asp-channel FETs in the single n-type well 154 formed in a p-typesemiconductor substrate 152. This is possible because, unlike the designof Milgrew et al., 1) there is no requirement for a transmission gate inthe pixel; and 2) the ISFETs source is not tied to the n-well's bodyconnection. More specifically, highly doped n-type regions 162 provide abody connection (B) to the n-well 154 and, as shown in FIG. 10, the bodyconnection B is coupled to a metal conductor 322 around the perimeter ofthe pixel 105 ₁. However, the body connection is not directlyelectrically coupled to the source region 156 of the ISFET (i.e., thereis no electrical conductor coupling the body connection and source suchthat they are forced to be at the same electric potential duringoperation), nor is the body connection directly electrically coupled tothe gate, source or drain of any component in the pixel. Thus, the otherp-channel FET components of the pixel, namely Q2 and Q3, may befabricated in the same n-well 154.

In the composite cross-sectional view of FIG. 11A, a highly doped p-typeregion 159 is also visible (lying along the line I-I in FIG. 10),corresponding to the shared drain (D) of the MOSFETs Q2 and Q3. Forpurposes of illustration, a polysilicon gate 166 of the MOSFET Q3 alsois visible in FIG. 11A, although this gate does not lie along the lineI-I in FIG. 10, but rather “behind the plane” of the cross-section alongthe line I-I. However, for simplicity, the respective sources of theMOSFETs Q2 and Q3 shown in FIG. 10, as well as the gate of Q2, are notvisible in FIG. 11A, as they lie along the same axis (i.e.,perpendicular to the plane of the figure) as the shared drain (if shownin FIG. 11A, these elements would unduly complicate the compositecross-sectional view of FIG. 11A).

Above the substrate, gate oxide, and polysilicon layers shown in FIG.11A, a number of additional layers are provided to establish electricalconnections to the various pixel components, including alternating metallayers and oxide layers through which conductive vias are formed.Pursuant to the example of a 4-Metal CMOS process, these layers arelabeled in FIG. 11A as “Contact,” “Metal1,” “Via1,” “Metal2,” “Via2,”“Metal3,” “Via3,” and “Metal4.” (Note that more or fewer metal layersmay be employed.) To facilitate an understanding particularly of theISFET electrical connections, the composite cross-sectional view of FIG.11A shows additional elements of the pixel fabrication on the right sideof the top view of FIG. 10 between the lines II-II and III-III. Withrespect to the ISFET electrical connections, the topmost metal layer 304corresponds to the ISFETs sensitive area 178, above which is disposed ananalyte-sensitive passivation layer 172. The topmost metal layer 304,together with the ISFET polysilicon gate 164 and the interveningconductors 306, 308, 312, 316, 320, 326 and 338, form the ISFETs“floating gate” structure 170, in a manner similar to that discussedabove in connection with a conventional ISFET design shown in FIG. 1. Anelectrical connection to the ISFETs drain is provided by the conductors340, 328, 318, 314 and 310 coupled to the line 116 ₁. The ISFETs sourceis coupled to the shared drain of the MOSFETs Q2 and Q3 via theconductors 334 and 336 and the conductor 324 (which lies along the lineI-I in FIG. 10). The body connections 162 to the n-well 154 areelectrically coupled to a metal conductor 322 around the perimeter ofthe pixel on the “Metal1” layer via the conductors 330 and 332.

As indicated above, FIGS. 12A1 through 12A12 provide top views of eachof the fabrication layers shown in FIG. 11A (the respective images ofFIGS. 12A1 through 12A12 are superimposed one on top of another tocreate the pixel chip layout design shown in FIG. 10). In FIG. 12A, thecorrespondence between the lettered top views of respective layers andthe cross-sectional view of FIG. 11A is as follows: A) n-type well 154;B) Implant; C) Diffusion; D) polysilicon gates 164 (ISFET) and 166(MOSFETs Q2 and Q3); E) contacts; F) Metal1; G) Via1; H) Metal2; I)Via2; J) Metal3; K) Via3; L) Metal4 (top electrode contacting ISFETgate). The various reference numerals indicated in FIGS. 12A1 through12A12 correspond to the identical features that are present in thecomposite cross-sectional view of FIG. 11A.

Applicants have recognized and appreciated that, at least in someapplications, pixel capacitance may be a salient parameter for some typeof analyte measurements. Accordingly, in another embodiment related topixel layout and design, various via and metal layers may bereconfigured so as to at least partially mitigate the potential forparasitic capacitances to arise during pixel operation. For example, inone such embodiment, pixels are designed such that there is a greatervertical distance between the signal lines 112 ₁, 114 ₁, 116 ₁ and 118₁, and the topmost metal layer 304 constituting the floating gatestructure 170.

In the embodiment described immediately above, with reference again toFIG. 11A, it may be readily observed that the topmost metal layer 304 isformed in the Metal4 layer (also see FIG. 12A12), and the signal lines112 ₁, 114 ₁, and 116 ₁ are formed in the Metal3 layer (also see FIG.12A10). Also, while not visible in the view of FIG. 11A, it may beobserved from FIG. 12A8 that the signal line 118 ₁ is formed in theMetal2 layer. As one or more of these signals may be grounded from timeto time during array operation, a parasitic capacitance may arisebetween any one or more of these signal lines and metal layer 304. Byincreasing a distance between these signal lines and the metal layer304, such parasitic capacitance may be reduced.

To this end, in another embodiment some via and metal layers arereconfigured such that the signal lines 112 ₁, 114 ₁, 116 ₁ and 118 ₁are implemented in the Metal1 and Metal2 layers, and the Metal3 layer isused only as a jumper between the Metal2 layer component of the floatinggate structure 170 and the topmost metal layer 304, thereby ensuring agreater distance between the signal lines and the metal layer 304. FIG.10A illustrates a top view of a such a chip layout design for a clusterof four neighboring pixels of an chemFET array shown in FIG. 9, with oneparticular pixel 105 ₁ identified and labeled. FIG. 11A-1 shows acomposite cross-sectional view of neighboring pixels, along the line I-Iof the pixel 105 ₁ shown in FIG. 10A, including additional elementsbetween the lines II-II, illustrating a layer-by-layer view of the pixelfabrication, and FIGS. 12B1 through 12B12 provide top views of each ofthe fabrication layers shown in FIG. 11A-1 (the respective images ofFIGS. 12B1 through 12B12 are superimposed one on top of another tocreate the pixel chip layout design shown in FIG. 10A).

In FIG. 10A, it may be observed that the pixel top view layout isgenerally similar to that shown in FIG. 10. For example, in the topview, the ISFET 150 generally occupies the right center portion of eachpixel, and the MOSFETs Q2 and Q3 generally occupy the left centerportion of the pixel illustration. Many of the component labels includedin FIG. 10 are omitted from FIG. 10A for clarity, although the ISFETpolysilicon gate 164 is indicated in the pixel 105 ₁ for orientation.FIG. 10A also shows the four lines (112 ₁, 114 ₁, 116 ₁ and 118 ₁)required to operate the pixel. One noteworthy difference between FIG. 10and FIG. 10A relates to the metal conductor 322 (located on the Metal1layer) which provides an electrical connection to the body region 162;namely, in FIG. 10, the conductor 322 surrounds a perimeter of thepixel, whereas in FIG. 10A, the conductor 322 does not completelysurround a perimeter of the pixel but includes discontinuities 727.These discontinuities 727 permit the line 118 ₁ to also be fabricated onthe Metal1 layer and traverse the pixel to connect to neighboring pixelsof a row.

With reference now to the cross-sectional view of FIG. 11A-1, threeadjacent pixels are shown in cross-section, with the center pixelcorresponding to the pixel 105 ₁ in FIG. 10A for purposes of discussion.As in the embodiment of FIG. 11A, all of the FET components of the pixel105 ₁ are fabricated as p-channel FETs in the single n-type well 154.Additionally, as in FIG. 11A, in the composite cross-sectional view ofFIG. 11A-1 the highly doped p-type region 159 is also visible (lyingalong the line I-I in FIG. 10A), corresponding to the shared drain (D)of the MOSFETs Q2 and Q3. For purposes of illustration, the polysilicongate 166 of the MOSFET Q3 also is visible in FIG. 11A-1, although thisgate does not lie along the line I-I in FIG. 10A, but rather “behind theplane” of the cross-section along the line I-I. However, for simplicity,the respective sources of the MOSFETs Q2 and Q3 shown in FIG. 10A, aswell as the gate of Q2, are not visible in FIG. 11A-1, as they lie alongthe same axis (i.e., perpendicular to the plane of the figure) as theshared drain. Furthermore, to facilitate an understanding of the ISFETfloating gate electrical connections, the composite cross-sectional viewof FIG. 11A-1 shows additional elements of the pixel fabrication betweenthe lines II-II of FIG. 10A.

More specifically, as in the embodiment of FIG. 11A, the topmost metallayer 304 corresponds to the ISFETs sensitive area 178, above which isdisposed an analyte-sensitive passivation layer 172. The topmost metallayer 304, together with the ISFET polysilicon gate 164 and theintervening conductors 306, 308, 312, 316, 320, 326 and 338, form theISFETs floating gate structure 170. However, unlike the embodiment ofFIG. 11A, an electrical connection to the ISFETs drain is provided bythe conductors 340, 328, and 318, coupled to the line 116 ₁ which isformed in the Metal2 layer rather than the Metal3 layer. Additionally,the lines 112 ₁ and 114 ₁ also are shown in FIG. 11A-1 as formed in theMetal2 layer rather than the Metal3 layer. The configuration of theselines, as well as the line 118 ₁, may be further appreciated from therespective images of FIGS. 12B1 through 12B12 (in which thecorrespondence between the lettered top views of respective layers andthe cross-sectional view of FIG. 11A-1 is the same as that described inconnection with FIGS. 12A1-12A12); in particular, it may be observed inFIG. 12B6 that the line 118 ₁, together with the metal conductor 322, isformed in the Metal1 layer, and it may be observed that the lines 112 ₁,114 ₁ and 116 ₁ are formed in the Metal2 layer, leaving only the jumper308 of the floating gate structure 170 in the Metal3 layer shown in FIG.12B10.

Accordingly, by consolidating the signal lines 112 ₁, 114 ₁, 116 ₁ and118 ₁ to the Metal1 and Metal2 layers and thereby increasing thedistance between these signal lines and the topmost layer 304 of thefloating gate structure 170 in the Metal4 layer, parasitic capacitancesin the ISFET may be at least partially mitigated. It should beappreciated that this general concept (e.g., including one or moreintervening metal layers between signal lines and topmost layer of thefloating gate structure) may be implemented in other fabricationprocesses involving greater numbers of metal layers. For example,distance between pixel signal lines and the topmost metal layer may beincreased by adding additional metal layers (more than four total metallayers) in which only jumpers to the topmost metal layer are formed inthe additional metal layers. In particular, a six-metal-layerfabrication process may be employed, in which the signal lines arefabricated using the Metal1 and Metal2 layers, the topmost metal layerof the floating gate structure is formed in the Metal6 layer, andjumpers to the topmost metal layer are formed in the Metal3, Metal4 andMetal5 layers, respectively (with associated vias between the metallayers). In another exemplary implementation based on a six-metal-layerfabrication process, the general pixel configuration shown in FIGS. 10,11A, and 12A1-12A12 may be employed (signal lines on Metal2 and Metal 3layers), in which the topmost metal layer is formed in the Metal6 layerand jumpers are formed in the Metal4 and Metal5 layers, respectively.

In yet another aspect relating to reduced capacitance, a dimension “f”of the topmost metal layer 304 (and thus the ISFET sensitive area 178)may be reduced so as to reduce cross-capacitance between neighboringpixels. As may be observed in FIG. 11A-1 (and as discussed further belowin connection with other embodiments directed to well fabrication abovean ISFET array), the well 725 may be fabricated so as to have a taperedshape, such that a dimension “g” at the top of the well is smaller thanthe pixel pitch “e” but yet larger than a dimension “f” at the bottom ofthe well. Based on such tapering, the topmost metal layer 304 also maybe designed with the dimension “f” rather than the dimension “g” so asto provide for additional space between the top metal layers ofneighboring pixels. In some illustrative non-limiting implementations,for pixels having a dimension “e” on the order of 9 micrometers thedimension “f” may be on the order of 6 micrometers (as opposed to 7micrometers, as discussed above), and for pixels having a dimension “e”on the order of 5 micrometers the dimension “f” may be on the order of3.5 micrometers.

Thus, the pixel chip layout designs respectively shown in FIGS. 10, 11A,and 12A1 through 12A12, and FIGS. 10A, 11A-1, and 12B1 through 12B12,illustrate that according to various embodiments FET devices of a sametype may be employed for all components of a pixel, and that allcomponents may be implemented in a single well. This dramaticallyreduces the area required for the pixel, thereby facilitating increasedpixel density in a given area.

In one exemplary implementation, the gate oxide 165 for the ISFET may befabricated to have a thickness on the order of approximately 75Angstroms, giving rise to a gate oxide capacitance per unit area C_(ox)of 4.5 fF/μm². Additionally, the polysilicon gate 164 may be fabricatedwith dimensions corresponding to a channel width W of 1.2 μm and achannel length L of from 0.35 to 0.6 μm (i.e., W/L ranging fromapproximately 2 to 3.5), and the doping of the region 160 may beselected such that the carrier mobility for the p-channel is 190 cm²/V·s(i.e., 1.9E10 μm²/V·s). From Eq. (2) above, this results in an ISFETtransconductance parameter β on the order of approximately 170 to 300μA/V². In other aspects of this exemplary implementation, the analogsupply voltage VDDA is 3.3 Volts, and VB1 and VB2 are biased so as toprovide a constant ISFET drain current I_(Dj) on the order of 5 μA (insome implementations, VB1 and VB2 may be adjusted to provide draincurrents from approximately 1 μA to 20 μA). Additionally, the MOSFET Q6(see bias/readout circuitry 110 j in FIG. 9) is sized to have a channelwidth to length ratio (e.g., W/L of approximately 50) such that thevoltage across Q6, given I_(Dj) of 5 μA, is 800 mV (i.e., V_(DSj)=800mV). From Eq. (3), based on these exemplary parameters, this providesfor pixel output voltages V_(Sj) over a range of approximately 0.5 to2.5 Volts for ISFET threshold voltage changes over a range ofapproximately 0 to 2 Volts.

With respect to the analyte-sensitive passivation layer 172 shown inFIG. 11A, in exemplary CMOS implementations the passivation layer may besignificantly sensitive to the concentration of various ion species,including hydrogen, and may include silicon nitride (Si₃N₄) and/orsilicon oxynitride (Si₂N₂O). In conventional CMOS processes, apassivation layer may be formed by one or more successive depositions ofthese materials, and is employed generally to treat or coat devices soas to protect against contamination and increase electrical stability.The material properties of silicon nitride and silicon oxynitride aresuch that a passivation layer comprising these materials providesscratch protection and serves as a significant barrier to the diffusionof water and sodium, which can cause device metallization to corrodeand/or device operation to become unstable. A passivation layerincluding silicon nitride and/or silicon oxynitride also providesion-sensitivity in ISFET devices, in that the passivation layer containssurface groups that may donate or accept protons from an analytesolution with which they are in contact, thereby altering the surfacepotential and the device threshold voltage V_(TH), as discussed above inconnection with FIGS. 1 and 2A.

For CMOS processes involving aluminum as the metal (which has a meltingpoint of approximately 650 degrees Celsius), a silicon nitride and/orsilicon oxynitride passivation layer generally is formed viaplasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), in which a glowdischarge at 250-350 degrees Celsius ionizes the constituent gases thatform silicon nitride or silicon oxynitride, creating active species thatreact at the wafer surface to form a laminate of the respectivematerials. In one exemplary process, a passivation layer having athickness on the order of approximately 1.0 to 1.5 μm may be formed byan initial deposition of a thin layer of silicon oxynitride (on theorder of 0.2 to 0.4 μm) followed by a slighting thicker deposition ofsilicon oxynitride (on the order of 0.5 μm) and a final deposition ofsilicon nitride (on the order of 0.5 μm). Because of the low depositiontemperature involved in the PECVD process, the aluminum metallization isnot adversely affected.

However, Applicants have recognized and appreciated that while alow-temperature PECVD process provides adequate passivation forconventional CMOS devices, the low-temperature process results in agenerally low-density and somewhat porous passivation layer, which insome cases may adversely affect ISFET threshold voltage stability. Inparticular, during ISFET device operation, a low-density porouspassivation layer over time may absorb and become saturated with ionsfrom the solution, which may in turn cause an undesirable time-varyingdrift in the ISFETs threshold voltage V_(TH), making accuratemeasurements challenging.

In view of the foregoing, in one embodiment a CMOS process that usestungsten metal instead of aluminum may be employed to fabricate ISFETarrays according to the present disclosure. The high melting temperatureof Tungsten (above 3400 degrees Celsius) permits the use of a highertemperature low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) process(e.g., approximately 700 to 800 degrees Celsius) for a silicon nitrideor silicon oxynitride passivation layer. The LPCVD process typicallyresults in significantly more dense and less porous films for thepassivation layer, thereby mitigating the potentially adverse effects ofion absorption from the analyte solution leading to ISFET thresholdvoltage drift.

In yet another embodiment in which an aluminum-based CMOS process isemployed to fabricate ISFET arrays according to the present disclosure,the passivation layer 172 shown in FIG. 11A may comprise additionaldepositions and/or materials beyond those typically employed in aconventional CMOS process. For example, the passivation layer 172 mayinclude initial low-temperature plasma-assisted depositions (PECVD) ofsilicon nitride and/or silicon oxynitride as discussed above; forpurposes of the present discussion, these conventional depositions areillustrated in FIG. 11A as a first portion 172A of the passivation layer172. In one embodiment, following the first portion 172A, one or moreadditional passivation materials are disposed to form at least a secondportion 172B to increase density and reduce porosity of (and absorptionby) the overall passivation layer 172. While one additional portion 172Bis shown primarily for purposes of illustration in FIG. 11A, it shouldbe appreciated that the disclosure is not limited in this respect, asthe overall passivation layer 172 may comprise two or more constituentportions, in which each portion may comprise one or morelayers/depositions of same or different materials, and respectiveportions may be configured similarly or differently.

Examples of materials suitable for the second portion 172B (or otheradditional portions) of the passivation layer 172 include, but are notlimited to, silicon nitride, silicon oxynitride, aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃),tantalum oxide (Ta₃O₅), tin oxide (SnO₂) and silicon dioxide (SiO₂). Inone aspect, the second portion 172B (or other additional portions) maybe deposited via a variety of relatively low-temperature processesincluding, but not limited to, RF sputtering, DC magnetron sputtering,thermal or e-beam evaporation, and ion-assisted depositions. In anotheraspect, a pre-sputtering etch process may be employed, prior todeposition of the second portion 172B, to remove any native oxideresiding on the first portion 172A (alternatively, a reducingenvironment, such as an elevated temperature hydrogen environment, maybe employed to remove native oxide residing on the first portion 172A).In yet another aspect, a thickness of the second portion 172B may be onthe order of approximately 0.04 μm to 0.06 μm (400 to 600 Angstroms) anda thickness of the first portion may be on the order of 1.0 to 1.5 μm,as discussed above. In some exemplary implementations, the first portion172A may include multiple layers of silicon oxynitride and siliconnitride having a combined thickness of 1.0 to 1.5 μm, and the secondportion 172B may include a single layer of either aluminum oxide ortantalum oxide having a thickness of approximately 400 to 600 Angstroms.Again, it should be appreciated that the foregoing exemplary thicknessesare provided primarily for purposes of illustration, and that thedisclosure is not limited in these respects.

It has been found according to the invention that hydrogen ion sensitivepassivation layers are also sensitive to other analytes including butnot limited to PPi and unincorporated nucleotide triphosphates. As anexample, a silicon nitride passivation layer is able to detect changesin the concentration of PPi and nucleotide triphosphates. The ability tomeasure the concentration change of these analytes using the samechemFET greatly facilitates the ability to sequence a nucleic acid usinga single array, thereby simplifying the sequencing method.

Thus it is to be understood that the chemFET arrays described herein maybe used to detect and/or measure various analytes and, by doing so, maymonitor a variety of reactions and/or interactions. It is also to beunderstood that the discussion herein relating to hydrogen ion detection(in the form of a pH change) is for the sake of convenience and brevityand that static or dynamic levels/concentrations of other analytes(including other ions) can be substituted for hydrogen in thesedescriptions. In particular, sufficiently fast concentration changes ofany one or more of various ion species present in the analyte may bedetected via the transient or dynamic response of a chemFET, asdiscussed above in connection with FIG. 2A. As also discussed above inconnection with the Site-Dissociation (or Site-Binding) model for theanalyte/passivation layer interface, it should be appreciated thatvarious parameters relating to the equilibrium reactions at theanalyte/passivation layer interface (e.g., rate constants for forwardand backward equilibrium reactions, total number of protondonor/acceptor sites per unit area on the passivation layer surface,intrinsic buffering capacity, pH at point of zero charge) are materialdependent properties and thus are affected by the choice of materialsemployed for the passivation layer.

The chemFETs, including ISFETs, described herein are capable ofdetecting any analyte that is itself capable of inducing a change inelectric field when in contact with or otherwise sensed or detected bythe chemFET surface. The analyte need not be charged in order to bedetected by the sensor. For example, depending on the embodiment, theanalyte may be positively charged (i.e., a cation), negatively charged(i.e., an anion), zwitterionic (i.e., capable of having two equal andopposite charges but being neutral overall), and polar yet neutral. Thislist is not intended as exhaustive as other analyte classes as well asspecies within each class will be readily contemplated by those ofordinary skill in the art based on the disclosure provided herein.

In the broadest sense of the invention, the passivation layer may or maynot be coated and the analyte may or may not interact directly with thepassivation layer. As an example, the passivation layer may be comprisedof silicon nitride and the analyte may be something other than hydrogenions. As a specific example, the passivation layer may be comprised ofsilicon nitride and the analyte may be PPi. In these instances, PPi isdetected directly (i.e., in the absence of PPi receptors attached to thepassivation layer either directly or indirectly).

If the analyte being detected is hydrogen (or alternatively hydroxide),then it is preferable to use weak buffers so that changes in eitherionic species can be detected at the passivation layer. If the analytebeing detected is something other than hydrogen (or hydroxide) but thereis some possibility of a pH change in the solution during the reactionor detection step, then it is preferable to use a strong buffer so thatchanges in pH do not interfere with the detection of the analyte. Abuffer is an ionic molecule (or a solution comprising an ionic molecule)that resists to varying extents changes in pH. Some buffers are able toneutralize acids or bases added to or generated in a solution, resultingin no effective pH change in the solution. It is to be understood thatany buffer is suitable provided it has a pKa in the desired range. Forsome embodiments, a suitable buffer is one that functions in about thepH range of 6 to 9, and more preferably 6.5 to 8.5. In otherembodiments, a suitable buffer is one that functions in about the pHrange of 7-10, including 8.5-9.5.

The strength of a buffer is a relative term since it depends on thenature, strength and concentration of the acid or base added to orgenerated in the solution of interest. A weak buffer is a buffer thatallows detection (and therefore is not able to otherwise control) pHchanges of about at least +/−0.005, about at least +/−0.01, about atleast +/−0.015, about at least +/−0.02, about at least +/−0.03, about atleast +/−0.04, about at least +/−0.05, about at least +/−0.10, about atleast +/−0.15, about at least +/−0.20, about at least +/−0.25, about atleast +/−0.30, about at least +/−0.35, about at least +/−0.45, about atleast +/−0.50, or more.

A strong buffer is a buffer that controls pH changes of about at least+/−0.005, about at least +/−0.01, about at least +/−0.015, about atleast +/−0.02, about at least +/−0.03, about at least +/−0.04, about atleast +/−0.05, about at least +/−0.10, about at least +/−0.15, about atleast +/−0.20, about at least +/−0.25, about at least +/−0.30, about atleast +/−0.35, about at least +/−0.45, about at least +/−0.50, or more.

Buffer strength can be varied by varying the concentration of the bufferspecies itself. Thus low concentration buffers can be low strengthbuffers. Examples include those having less than 1 mM (e.g., 50-100 μM)buffer species. A non-limiting example of a weak buffer suitable for thesequencing reactions described herein wherein pH change is the readoutis 0.1 mM Tris or Tricine. Examples of suitable weak buffers areprovided in the Examples and are also known in the art. Higherconcentration buffers can be stronger buffers. Examples include thosehaving 1-25 mM buffer species. A non-limiting example of a strong buffersuitable for the sequencing reactions described herein wherein PPiand/or nucleotide triphosphates are read directly is 1, 5 or 25 mM (ormore) Tris or Tricine. One of ordinary skill in the art will be able todetermine the optimal buffer for use in the reactions and detectionmethods encompassed by the invention.

In some embodiments, the passivation layer and/or the layers and/ormolecules coated thereon dictate the analyte specificity of the arrayreadout.

Detection of hydrogen ions (in the form of pH), and other analytes asdetermined by the invention, can be carried out using a passivationlayer made of silicon nitride (Si₃N₄), silicon oxynitride (Si₂N₂O),silicon oxide (SiO₂), aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), tantalum pentoxide(Ta₂O₅), tin oxide or stannic oxide (SnO₂), and the like.

The passivation layer can also detect other ion species directlyincluding but not limited to calcium, potassium, sodium, iodide,magnesium, chloride, lithium, lead, silver, cadmium, nitrate, phosphate,dihydrogen phosphate, and the like.

In some embodiments, the passivation layer is coated with a receptor forthe analyte of interest. Preferably, the receptor binds selectively tothe analyte of interest or in some instances to a class of agents towhich the analyte belongs. As used herein, a receptor that bindsselectively to an analyte is a molecule that binds preferentially tothat analyte (i.e., its binding affinity for that analyte is greaterthan its binding affinity for any other analyte). Its binding affinityfor the analyte of interest may be 2-fold, 3-fold, 4-fold, 5-fold,6-fold, 7-fold, 8-fold, 9-fold, 10-fold, 15-fold, 20-fold, 25-fold,30-fold, 40-fold, 50-fold, 100-fold or more than its binding affinityfor any other analyte. In addition to its relative binding affinity, thereceptor must also have an absolute binding affinity that issufficiently high to efficiently bind the analyte of interest (i.e., itmust have a sufficient sensitivity). Receptors having binding affinitiesin the picomolar to micromolar range are suitable. Preferably suchinteractions are reversible.

The receptor may be of any nature (e.g., chemical, nucleic acid,peptide, lipid, combinations thereof and the like). In such embodiments,the analyte too may be of any nature provided there exists a receptorthat binds to it selectively and in some instances specifically. It isto be understood however that the invention further contemplatesdetection of analytes in the absence of a receptor. An example of thisis the detection of PPi and Pi by the passivation layer in the absenceof PPi or Pi receptors.

In one aspect, the invention contemplates receptors that are ionophores.As used herein, an ionophore is a molecule that binds selectively to anionic species, whether anion or cation. In the context of the invention,the ionophore is the receptor and the ion to which it binds is theanalyte. Ionophores of the invention include art-recognized carrierionophores (i.e., small lipid-soluble molecules that bind to aparticular ion) derived from microorganisms. Various ionophores arecommercially available from sources such as Calbiochem.

Detection of some ions can be accomplished through the use of thepassivation layer itself or through the use of receptors coated onto thepassivation layer. For example, potassium can be detected selectivelyusing polysiloxane, valinomycin, or salinomycin; sodium can be detectedselectively using monensin, nystatin, or SQI-Pr; calcium can be detectedselectively using ionomycin, calcimycine (A23187), or CA 1001 (ETH1001).

Receptors able to bind more than one ion can also be used in someinstances. For example, beauvericin can be used to detect calcium and/orbarium ions, nigericin can be used to detect potassium, hydrogen and/orlead ions, and gramicidin can be used to detect hydrogen, sodium and/orpotassium ions. One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize thatthese compounds can be used in applications in which single ionspecificity is not required or in which it is unlikely (or impossible)that other ions which the compounds bind will be present or generated.Similarly, receptors that bind multiple species of a particular genusmay also be useful in some embodiments including those in which only onespecies within the genus will be present or in which the method does notrequire distinction between species.

In other embodiments, including but not limited to nucleic acidsequencing applications, receptors that bind selectively to PPi can beused. Examples of PPi receptors include those compounds shown in FIG.11B(1)-(3) (compounds 1-10). Compound 1 is described in Angew Chem IntEd 2004 43:4777-4780 and US 2005/0119497 A1 and is referred to asp-naphthyl-bis[bis(2-pyridylmethyl)amino)methyl]phenol. Compound 2 isdescribed in J Am Chem Soc 2003 125:7752-7753 and US 2005/0119497 A1 andis referred to asp-(p-nitrophenylazo)-bis[bis(2-pyridylmethyl-1)amino)methyl]phenol (orits dinuclear Zn complex). Synthesis schemes for compounds 1 and 2 areshown provided in US 2005/0119497 A1. Compound 3 is described in by Leeet al. Organic Letters 2007 9(2):243-246, and Sensors and Actuators B1995 29:324-327. Compound 4 is described in Angew Chem Int Ed 200241(20):3811-3814. Compound 5 is described in WO 2007/002204 and isreferred to therein as bis-Zn²⁺-dipicolylamine (Zn²⁺-DPA). Compound 6 isillustrated bound to PPi. (McDonough et al. Chem. Commun. 20062971-2973.) Exemplary syntheses for compounds 7, 8 and 9 are shown inFIGS. 11C(1)-(3) respectively. Attachment of compound 7 to a metal oxidesurface is shown in FIG. 11E.

As another example, receptors for neurotoxins are described in SimonianElectroanalysis 2004, 16: 1896-1906.

Receptors may be attached to the passivation layer covalently ornon-covalently. Covalent attachment of a receptor to the passivationlayer may be direct or indirect (e.g., through a linker). FIGS. 11D(1)and (2) illustrate the use of silanol chemistry to covalently bindreceptors to the passivation layer. Receptors may be immobilized on thepassivation layer using for example aliphatic primary amines (bottomleft panel) or aryl isothiocyanates (bottom right panel). In these andother embodiments, the passivation layer which itself may be comprisedof silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, silicon oxide, tantalum pentoxide,or the like, is bonded to a silanation layer via its reactive surfacegroups. For greater detail on silanol chemistry for covalent attachmentto the FET surface, reference can be made to at least the followingpublications: for silicon nitride, see Sensors and Actuators B 199529:324-327, Jpn J Appl Phys 1999 38:3912-3917 and Langmuir 200521:395-402; for silicon oxide, see Protein Sci 1995 4:2532-2544 and AmBiotechnol Lab 2002 20(7):16-18; and for aluminum oxide, see Colloidsand Surfaces 1992 63:1-9, Sensors and Actuators B 2003 89:40-47, andBioconjugate Chem 1997 8:424-433. The receptor is then conjugated to thesilanation layer reactive groups. This latter binding can occur directlyor indirectly through the use of a bifunctional linker, as illustratedin FIGS. 11D(1) and (2).

A bifunctional linker is a compound having at least two reactive groupsto which two entities may be bound. In some instances, the reactivegroups are located at opposite ends of the linker. In some embodiments,the bifunctional linker is a universal bifunctional linker such as thatshown in FIGS. 11D(1) and (2). A universal linker is a linker that canbe used to link a variety of entities. It should be understood that thechemistries shown in FIGS. 11D(1) and (2) are meant to be illustrativeand not limiting.

The bifunctional linker may be a homo-bifunctional linker or ahetero-bifunctional linker, depending upon the nature of the moleculesto be conjugated. Homo-bifunctional linkers have two identical reactivegroups. Hetero-bifunctional linkers are have two different reactivegroups. Various types of commercially available linkers are reactivewith one or more of the following groups: primary amines, secondaryamines, sulphydryls, carboxyls, carbonyls and carbohydrates. Examples ofamine-specific linkers are bis(sulfosuccinimidyl) suberate,bis[2-(succinimidooxycarbonyloxy)ethyl]sulfone, disuccinimidyl suberate,disuccinimidyl tartarate, dimethyl adipimate.2HCl, dimethylpimelimidate.2HCl, dimethyl suberimidate.2HCl, and ethyleneglycolbis-[succinimidyl-[succinate]]. Linkers reactive with sulfhydrylgroups include bismaleimidohexane,1,4-di-[3′-(2′-pyridyldithio)-propionamido)] butane,1-[p-azidosalicylamido]-4-[iodoacetamido] butane, andN-[4-(p-azidosalicylamido) butyl]-3′[2′-pyridyldithio] propionamide.Linkers preferentially reactive with carbohydrates include azidobenzoylhydrazine. Linkers preferentially reactive with carboxyl groups include4-[p-azidosalicylamido] butylamine.

Heterobifunctional linkers that react with amines and sulfhydrylsinclude N-succinimidyl-3-[2-pyridyldithio] propionate, succinimidyl[4-iodoacetyl]aminobenzoate, succinimidyl4-[N-maleimidomethyl]cyclohexane-1-carboxylate,m-maleimidobenzoyl-N-hydroxysuccinimide ester, sulfosuccinimidyl6-[3-[2-pyridyldithio]propionamido]hexanoate, and sulfosuccinimidyl4-[N-maleimidomethyl] cyclohexane-1-carboxylate. Heterobifunctionallinkers that react with carboxyl and amine groups include1-ethyl-3-[3-dimethylaminopropyl]-carbodiimide hydrochloride.Heterobifunctional linkers that react with carbohydrates and sulfhydrylsinclude 4-[N-maleimidomethyl]-cyclohexane-1-carboxylhydrazide.2HCl,4-(4-N-maleimidophenyl)-butyric acid hydrazide.2HCl, and3-[2-pyridyldithio] propionyl hydrazide.

Alternatively, receptors may be non-covalently coated onto thepassivation layer. Non-covalent deposition of the receptor onto thepassivation layer may involve the use of a polymer matrix. The polymermay be naturally occurring or non-naturally occurring and may be of anytype including but not limited to nucleic acid (e.g., DNA, RNA, PNA,LNA, and the like, or mimics, derivatives, or combinations thereof),amino acid (e.g., peptides, proteins (native or denatured), and thelike, or mimics, derivatives, or combinations thereof, lipids,polysaccharides, and functionalized block copolymers. The receptor maybe adsorbed onto and/or entrapped within the polymer matrix. The natureof the polymer will depend on the nature of the receptor being usedand/or analyte being detected.

Alternatively, the receptor may be covalently conjugated or crosslinkedto the polymer (e.g., it may be “grafted” onto a functionalizedpolymer).

An example of a suitable peptide polymer is poly-lysine (e.g.,poly-L-lysine). Examples of other polymers include block copolymers thatcomprise polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyamides, polycarbonates,polyalkylenes, polyalkylene glycols, polyalkylene oxides, polyalkyleneterepthalates, polyvinyl alcohols, polyvinyl ethers, polyvinyl esters,polyvinyl halides, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyglycolides, polysiloxanes,polyurethanes, alkyl cellulose, hydroxyalkyl celluloses, celluloseethers, cellulose esters, nitrocelluloses, polymers of acrylic andmethacrylic esters, methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, hydroxybutyl methylcellulose, cellulose acetate, cellulose propionate, cellulose acetatebutyrate, cellulose acetate phthalate, carboxylethyl cellulose,cellulose triacetate, cellulose sulphate sodium salt, poly(methylmethacrylate), poly(ethyl methacrylate), poly(butylmethacrylate),poly(isobutyl methacrylate), poly(hexylmethacrylate), poly(isodecylmethacrylate), poly(lauryl methacrylate), poly(phenyl methacrylate),poly(methyl acrylate), poly(isopropyl acrylate), poly(isobutylacrylate), poly(octadecyl acrylate), polyethylene, polypropylene,poly(ethylene glycol), poly(ethylene oxide), poly(ethyleneterephthalate), poly(vinyl alcohols), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinylchloride, polystyrene, polyhyaluronic acids, casein, gelatin, glutin,polyanhydrides, polyacrylic acid, alginate, chitosan, poly(methylmethacrylates), poly(ethyl methacrylates), poly(butylmethacrylate),poly(isobutyl methacrylate), poly(hexylmethacrylate), poly(isodecylmethacrylate), poly(lauryl methacrylate), poly(phenyl methacrylate),poly(methyl acrylate), poly(isopropyl acrylate), poly(isobutylacrylate), and poly(octadecyl acrylate), poly(lactide-glycolide),copolyoxalates, polycaprolactones, polyesteramides, polyorthoesters,polyhydroxybutyric acid, polyanhydrides,poly(styrene-b-isobutylene-b-styrene) (SIBS) block copolymer, ethylenevinyl acetate, poly(meth)acrylic acid, polymers of lactic acid andglycolic acid, polyanhydrides, poly(ortho)esters, polyurethanes,poly(butic acid), poly(valeric acid), and poly(lactide-cocaprolactone),and natural polymers such as alginate and other polysaccharidesincluding dextran and cellulose, collagen, albumin and other hydrophilicproteins, zein and other prolamines and hydrophobic proteins, copolymersand mixtures thereof, and chemical derivatives thereof includingsubstitutions and/or additions of chemical groups, for example, alkyl,alkylene, hydroxylations, oxidations, and other modifications routinelymade by those skilled in the art.

Another issue that relates to ISFET threshold voltage stability and/orpredictability involves trapped charge that may accumulate (especially)on metal layers of CMOS-fabricated devices as a result of variousprocessing activities during or following array fabrication (e.g.,back-end-of-line processing such as plasma metal etching, wafercleaning, dicing, packaging, handling, etc.). In particular, withreference to FIG. 11A, trapped charge may in some instances accumulateon one or more of the various conductors 304, 306, 308, 312, 316, 320,326, 338, and 164 constituting the ISFETs floating gate structure 170.This phenomenon also is referred to in the relevant literature as the“antenna effect.”

One opportunity for trapped charge to accumulate includes plasma etchingof the topmost metal layer 304. Applicants have recognized andappreciated that other opportunities for charge to accumulate on one ormore conductors of the floating gate structure or other portions of theFETs includes wafer dicing, during which the abrasive process of adicing saw cutting through a wafer generates static electricity, and/orvarious post-processing wafer handling/packaging steps, such asdie-to-package wire bonding, where in some cases automated machinerythat handles/transports wafers may be sources of electrostatic discharge(ESD) to conductors of the floating gate structure. If there is noconnection to the silicon substrate (or other semi-conductor substrate)to provide an electrical path to bleed off such charge accumulation,charge may build up to the point of causing undesirable changes ordamage to the gate oxide 165 (e.g., charge injection into the oxide, orlow-level oxide breakdown to the underlying substrate). Trapped chargein the gate oxide or at the gate oxide-semiconductor interface in turncan cause undesirable and/or unpredictable variations in ISFET operationand performance, such as fluctuations in threshold voltage.

In view of the foregoing, other inventive embodiments of the presentdisclosure are directed to methods and apparatus for improving ISFETperformance by reducing trapped charge or mitigating the antenna effect.In one embodiment, trapped charge may be reduced after a sensor arrayhas been fabricated, while in other embodiments the fabrication processitself may be modified to reduce trapped charge that could be induced bysome conventional process steps. In yet other embodiments, both “duringfabrication” and “post fabrication” techniques may be employed incombination to reduce trapped charge and thereby improve ISFETperformance.

With respect to alterations to the fabrication process itself to reducetrapped charge, in one embodiment the thickness of the gate oxide 165shown in FIG. 11A may be particularly selected so as to facilitatebleeding of accumulated charge to the substrate; in particular, athinner gate oxide may allow a sufficient amount of built-up charge topass through the gate oxide to the substrate below without becomingtrapped. In another embodiment based on this concept, a pixel may bedesigned to include an additional “sacrificial” device, i.e., anothertransistor having a thinner gate oxide than the gate oxide 165 of theISFET. The floating gate structure of the ISFET may then be coupled tothe gate of the sacrificial device such that it serves as a “chargebleed-off transistor.” Of course, it should be appreciated that sometrade-offs for including such a sacrificial device include an increasein pixel size and complexity.

In another embodiment, the topmost metal layer 304 of the ISFETsfloating gate structure 170 shown in FIG. 11A may be capped with adielectric prior to plasma etching to mitigate trapped charge. Asdiscussed above, charge accumulated on the floating gate structure mayin some cases be coupled from the plasma being used for metal etching.Typically, a photoresist is applied over the metal to be etched and thenpatterned based on the desired geometry for the underlying metal. In oneexemplary implementation, a capping dielectric layer (e.g., an oxide)may be deposited over the metal to be etched, prior to the applicationof the photoresist, to provide an additional barrier on the metalsurface against charge from the plasma etching process. In one aspect,the capping dielectric layer may remain behind and form a portion of thepassivation layer 172.

In yet another embodiment, the metal etch process for the topmost metallayer 304 may be modified to include wet chemistry or ion-beam millingrather than plasma etching. For example, the metal layer 304 could beetched using an aqueous chemistry selective to the underlying dielectric(e.g., see website for Transene relating to aluminum, which is herebyincorporated herein by reference). Another alternative approach employsion-milling rather than plasma etching for the metal layer 304.Ion-milling is commonly used to etch materials that cannot be readilyremoved using conventional plasma or wet chemistries. The ion-millingprocess does not employ an oscillating electric field as does a plasma,so that charge build-up does not occur in the metal layer(s). Yetanother metal etch alternative involves optimizing the plasma conditionsso as to reduce the etch rate (i.e. less power density).

In yet another embodiment, architecture changes may be made to the metallayer to facilitate complete electrical isolation during definition ofthe floating gate. In one aspect, designing the metal stack-up so thatthe large area ISFET floating gate is not connected to anything duringits final definition may require a subsequent metal layer serving as a“jumper” to realize the electrical connection to the floating gate ofthe transistor. This “jumper” connection scheme prevents charge flowfrom the large floating gate to the transistor. This method may beimplemented as follows (M=metal layer): i) M1 contacting Poly gateelectrode; ii) M2 contacting M1; iii) M3 defines floating gate andseparately connects to M2 with isolated island; iv) M4 jumper, havingvery small area being etched over the isolated islands and connectionsto floating gate M3, connects the M3 floating gate to the M1/M2/M3 stackconnected to the Poly gate immediately over the transistor active area;and v) M3 to M4 interlayer dielectric is removed only over the floatinggate so as to expose the bare M3 floating gate. In the method outlinedimmediately above, step v) need not be done, as the ISFET architectureaccording to some embodiments discussed above leaves the M4 passivationin place over the M4 floating gate. In one aspect, removal maynonetheless improve ISFET performance in other ways (i.e. sensitivity).In any case, the final sensitive passivation layer may be a thinsputter-deposited ion-sensitive metal-oxide layer. It should beappreciated that the over-layer jumpered architecture discussed abovemay be implemented in the standard CMOS fabrication flow to allow any ofthe first three metal layers to be used as the floating gates (i.e. M1,M2 or M3).

With respect to post-fabrication processes to reduce trapped charge, inone embodiment a “forming gas anneal” may be employed as apost-fabrication process to mitigate potentially adverse effects oftrapped charge. In a forming gas anneal, CMOS-fabricated ISFET devicesare heated in a hydrogen and nitrogen gas mixture. The hydrogen gas inthe mixture diffuses into the gate oxide 165 and neutralizes certainforms of trapped charges. In one aspect, the forming gas anneal need notnecessarily remove all gate oxide damage that may result from trappedcharges; rather, in some cases, a partial neutralization of some trappedcharge is sufficient to significantly improve ISFET performance. Inexemplary annealing processes according to the present disclosure,ISFETs may be heated for approximately 30 to 60 minutes at approximately400 to 425 degrees Celsius in a hydrogen/nitrogen mixture that includes10% to 15% hydrogen. In one particular implementation, annealing at 425degrees Celsius at 30 minutes in a hydrogen/nitrogen mixture thatincludes 10% hydrogen is observed to be particularly effective atimproving ISFET performance. For aluminum CMOS processes, thetemperature of the anneal should be kept at or below 450 degrees Celsiusto avoid damaging the aluminum metallurgy. In another aspect of anannealing process according to the present disclosure, the forming gasanneal is performed after wafers of fabricated ISFET arrays are diced,so as to ensure that damage due to trapped charge induced by the dicingprocess itself, and/or other pre-dicing processing steps (e.g., plasmaetching of metals) may be effectively ameliorated. In yet anotheraspect, the forming gas anneal may be performed after die-to-packagewirebonding to similarly ameliorate damage due to trapped charge. Atthis point in the assembly process, a diced array chip is typically in aheat and chemical resistant ceramic package, and low-tolerancewirebonding procedures as well as heat-resistant die-to-packageadhesives may be employed to withstand the annealing procedure. Thus, inone exemplary embodiment, the invention encompasses a method formanufacturing an array of FETs, each having or coupled to a floatinggate having a trapped charge of zero or substantially zero comprising:fabricating a plurality of FETs in a common semiconductor substrate,each of a plurality of which is coupled to a floating gate; applying aforming gas anneal to the semiconductor prior to a dicing step; dicingthe semiconductor; and applying a forming gas anneal to thesemiconductor after the dicing step. Preferably, the semiconductorsubstrate comprises at least 100,000 FETs. Preferably, the plurality ofFETs are chemFETs. The method may further comprise depositing apassivation layer on the semiconductor, depositing a polymeric, glass,ion-reactively etchable or photodefineable material layer on thepassivation layer and etching the polymeric, glass ion-reactivelyetchable or photodefineable material to form an array of reactionchambers in the glass layer.

In yet other processes for mitigating potentially adverse effects oftrapped charge according to embodiments of the present disclosure, avariety of “electrostatic discharge (ESD)-sensitive protocols” may beadopted during any of a variety of wafer post-fabricationhandling/packaging steps. For example, in one exemplary process,anti-static dicing tape may be employed to hold wafer substrates inplace (e.g., during the dicing process). Also, although high-resistivity(e.g., 10 MΩ) deionized water conventionally is employed in connectionwith cooling of dicing saws, according to one embodiment of the presentdisclosure less resistive/more conductive water may be employed for thispurpose to facilitate charge conduction via the water; for example,deionized water may be treated with carbon dioxide to lower resistivityand improve conduction of charge arising from the dicing process.Furthermore, conductive and grounded die-ejection tools may be usedduring various wafer dicing/handling/packaging steps, again to provideeffective conduction paths for charge generated during any of thesesteps, and thereby reduce opportunities for charge to accumulate on oneor more conductors of the floating gate structure of respective ISFETsof an array.

In yet another embodiment involving a post-fabrication process to reducetrapped charge, the gate oxide region of an ISFET may be irradiated withUV radiation. With reference again to FIG. 11A, in one exemplaryimplementation based on this embodiment, an optional hole or window 302is included during fabrication of an ISFET array in the top metal layer304 of each pixel of the array, proximate to the ISFET floating gatestructure. This window is intended to allow UV radiation, whengenerated, to enter the ISFETs gate region; in particular, the variouslayers of the pixel 105 ₁, as shown in FIGS. 11 and 12A1-12A12, areconfigured such that UV radiation entering the window 302 may impinge inan essentially unobstructed manner upon the area proximate to thepolysilicon gate 164 and the gate oxide 165.

To facilitate a UV irradiation process to reduce trapped charge,Applicants have recognized and appreciated that materials other thansilicon nitride and silicon oxynitride generally need to be employed inthe passivation layer 172 shown in FIG. 11A, as silicon nitride andsilicon oxynitride significantly absorb UV radiation. In view of theforegoing, these materials need to be substituted with others that areappreciably transparent to UV radiation, examples of which include, butare not limited to, phososilicate glass (PSG) and boron-dopedphososilicate glass (BPSG). PSG and BPSG, however, are not impervious tohydrogen and hydroxyl ions; accordingly, to be employed in a passivationlayer of an ISFET designed for pH sensitivity, PSG and BPSG may be usedtogether with an ion-impervious material that is also significantlytransparent to UV radiation, such as aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), to form thepassivation layer. For example, with reference again to FIG. 11A, PSG orBPSG may be employed as a substitute for silicon nitride or siliconoxynitride in the first portion 172A of the passivation layer 172, and athin layer (e.g., 400 to 600 Angstroms) of aluminum oxide may beemployed in the second portion 172B of the passivation layer 172 (e.g.,the aluminum oxide may be deposited using a post-CMOS lift-offlithography process).

In another aspect of an embodiment involving UV irradiation, each ISFETof a sensor array must be appropriately biased during a UV irradiationprocess to facilitate reduction of trapped charge. In particular, highenergy photons from the UV irradiation, impinging upon the bulk siliconregion 160 in which the ISFET conducting channel is formed, createelectron-hole pairs which facilitate neutralization of trapped charge inthe gate oxide as current flows through the ISFETs conducting channel.To this end, an array controller, discussed further below in connectionwith FIG. 17, generates appropriate signals for biasing the ISFETs ofthe array during a UV irradiation process. In particular, with referenceagain to FIG. 9, each of the signals RowSel₁ through RowSel_(n) isgenerated so as to enable/select (i.e., turn on) all rows of the sensorarray at the same time and thereby couple all of the ISFETs of the arrayto respective controllable current sources 106 _(j) in each column. Withall pixels of each column simultaneously selected, the current from thecurrent source 106 _(j) of a given column is shared by all pixels of thecolumn. The column amplifiers 107A and 107B are disabled by removing thebias voltage VB4, and at the same time the output of the amplifier 107B,connected to the drain of each ISFET in a given column, is grounded viaa switch responsive to a control signal “UV.” Also, the common bodyvoltage V_(BODY) for all ISFETs of the array is coupled to electricalground (i.e., V_(BODY)=0 Volts) (as discussed above, during normaloperation of the array, the body bias voltage V_(BODY) is coupled to thehighest voltage potential available to the array, e.g., VDDA). In oneexemplary procedure, the bias voltage VB1 for all of the controllablecurrent sources 106 _(j) is set such that each pixel's ISFET conductsapproximately 1 μA of current. With the ISFET array thusly biased, thearray then is irradiated with a sufficient dose of UV radiation (e.g.,from an EPROM eraser generating approximately 20 milliWatts/cm² ofradiation at a distance of approximately one inch from the array forapproximately 1 hour). After irradiation, the array may be allowed torest and stabilize over several hours before use for measurements ofchemical properties such as ion concentration.

Utilizing at least one of the above-described techniques for reducingtrapped charge, we have been able to fabricate FETs floating gateshaving a trapped charge of zero or substantially zero. Thus, in someembodiments, an aspect of the invention encompasses a floating gatehaving a surface area of about 4 μm² to about 50 μm² having baselinethreshold voltage and preferably a trapped charge of zero orsubstantially zero. Preferably the FETs are chemFETs. The trapped chargeshould be kept to a level that does not cause appreciable variationsfrom FET to FET across the array, as that would limit the dynamic rangeof the devices, consistency of measurements, and otherwise adverselyaffect performance.

FIG. 13 illustrates a block diagram of an exemplary CMOS IC chipimplementation of an ISFET sensor array 100 based on the column andpixel designs discussed above in connection with FIGS. 9-12A, accordingto one embodiment of the present disclosure. In one aspect of thisembodiment, the array 100 includes 512 columns 102 ₁ through 102 ₅₁₂with corresponding column bias/readout circuitry 110 ₁ through 110 ₅₁₂(one for each column, as shown in FIG. 9), wherein each column includes512 geometrically square pixels 105 ₁ through 105 ₅₁₂, each having asize of approximately 9 micrometers by 9 micrometers (i.e., the array is512 columns by 512 rows). In another aspect, the entire array (includingpixels together with associated row and column select circuitry andcolumn bias/readout circuitry) may be fabricated on a semiconductor dieas an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) having dimensionsof approximately 7 millimeters by 7 millimeters. While an array of 512by 512 pixels is shown in the embodiment of FIG. 13, it should beappreciated that arrays may be implemented with different numbers ofrows and columns and different pixel sizes according to otherembodiments, as discussed further below in connection with FIGS. 19-23.

Also, as discussed above, it should be appreciated that arrays accordingto various embodiments of the present invention may be fabricatedaccording to conventional CMOS fabrications techniques, as well asmodified CMOS fabrication techniques (e.g., to facilitate realization ofvarious functional aspects of the chemFET arrays discussed herein, suchas additional deposition of passivation materials, process steps tomitigate trapped charge, etc.) and other semiconductor fabricationtechniques beyond those conventionally employed in CMOS fabrication.Additionally, various lithography techniques may be employed as part ofan array fabrication process. For example, in one exemplaryimplementation, a lithography technique may be employed in whichappropriately designed blocks are “stitched” together by overlapping theedges of a step and repeat lithography exposures on a wafer substrate byapproximately 0.2 micrometers. In a single exposure, the maximum diesize typically is approximately 21 millimeters by 21 millimeters. Byselectively exposing different blocks (sides, top & bottoms, core, etc.)very large chips can be defined on a wafer (up to a maximum, in theextreme, of one chip per wafer, commonly referred to as “wafer scaleintegration”).

In one aspect of the array 100 shown in FIG. 13, the first and last twocolumns 102 ₁, 102 ₂, 102 ₅₁₁ and 102 ₅₁₂, as well as the first twopixels 105 ₁ and 105 ₂ and the last two pixels 105 ₅₁₁ and 105 ₅₁₂ ofeach of the columns 102 ₃ through 102 ₅₁₀ (e.g., two rows and columns ofpixels around a perimeter of the array) may be configured as “reference”or “dummy” pixels 103. With reference to FIG. 11A, for the dummy pixelsof an array, the topmost metal layer 304 of each dummy pixel's ISFET(coupled ultimately to the ISFETs polysilicon gate 164) is tied to thesame metal layer of other dummy pixels and is made accessible as aterminal of the chip, which in turn may be coupled to a referencevoltage VREF. As discussed above in connection with FIG. 9, thereference voltage VREF also may be applied to the bias/readout circuitryof respective columns of the array. In some exemplary implementationsdiscussed further below, preliminary test/evaluation data may beacquired from the array based on applying the reference voltage VREF andselecting and reading out dummy pixels, and/or reading out columns basedon the direct application of VREF to respective column buffers (e.g.,via the CAL signal), to facilitate offset determination (e.g.,pixel-to-pixel and column-to-column variances) and array calibration.

In yet another implementation of an array similar to that shown in FIG.13, rather than reserving the first and last two columns of 512 columnsand the first and last two pixels of each column of 512 pixels asreference pixels, the array may be fabricated to include an additionaltwo rows/columns of reference pixels surrounding a perimeter of a 512 by512 region of active pixels, such that the total size of the array interms of actual pixels is 516 by 516 pixels. As arrays of various sizesand configurations are contemplated by the present disclosure, it shouldbe appreciated that the foregoing concept may be applied to any of theother array embodiments discussed herein. For purposes of the discussionimmediately below regarding the exemplary array 100 shown in FIG. 13, atotal pixel count for the array of 512 by 512 pixels is considered.

In FIG. 13, various power supply and bias voltages required for arrayoperation (as discussed above in connection with FIG. 9) are provided tothe array via electrical connections (e.g., pins, metal pads) andlabeled for simplicity in block 195 as “supply and bias connections.”The array 100 of FIG. 13 also includes a row select shift register 192,two sets of column select shift registers 194 _(1,2) and two outputdrivers 198 ₁ and 198 ₂ to provide two parallel array output signals,Vout1 and Vout2, representing sensor measurements (i.e., collections ofindividual output signals generated by respective ISFETs of the array).The various power supply and bias voltages, control signals for the rowand column shift registers, and control signals for the columnbias/readout circuitry shown in FIG. 13 are provided by an arraycontroller, as discussed further below in connection with FIG. 17, whichalso reads the array output signals Vout1 and Vout2 (and other optionalstatus/diagnostic signals) from the array 100. In another aspect of thearray embodiment shown in FIG. 13, configuring the array such thatmultiple regions (e.g., multiple columns) of the array may be read atthe same time via multiple parallel array output signals (e.g., Vout1and Vout2) facilitates increased data acquisition rates, as discussedfurther below in connection with FIGS. 17 and 18. While FIG. 13illustrates an array having two column select registers and parallelarray output signals Vout1 and Vout2 to acquire data simultaneously fromtwo columns at a time, it should be appreciated that, in otherembodiments, arrays according to the present disclosure may beconfigured to have only one measurement signal output, or more than twomeasurement signal outputs; in particular, as discussed further below inconnection with FIGS. 19-23, more dense arrays according to otherinventive embodiments may be configured to have four our more parallelmeasurement signal outputs and simultaneously enable different regionsof the array to provide data via the four or more outputs.

FIG. 14 illustrates the row select shift register 192, FIG. 15illustrates one of the column select shift registers 194 ₂ and FIG. 16illustrates one of the output drivers 198 ₂ of the array 100 shown inFIG. 13, according to one exemplary implementation. As shown in FIGS. 14and 15, the row and column select shift registers are implemented as aseries of D-type flip-flops coupled to a digital circuitry positivesupply voltage VDDD and a digital supply ground VSSD. In the row andcolumn shift registers, a data signal is applied to a D-input of firstflip-flop in each series and a clock signal is applied simultaneously toa clock input of all of the flip-flops in the series. For eachflip-flop, a “Q” output reproduces the state of the D-input upon atransition (e.g., falling edge) of the clock signal. With reference toFIG. 14, the row select shift register 192 includes 512 D-typeflip-flops, in which a first flip-flop 193 receives a vertical datasignal DV and all flip-flops receive a vertical clock signal CV. A “Q”output of the first flip-flop 193 provides the first row select signalRowSel₁ and is coupled to the D-input of the next flip-flop in theseries. The Q outputs of successive flip-flops are coupled to theD-inputs of the next flip-flop in the series and provide the row selectsignals RowSel₂ through RowSel₅₁₂ with successive falling edgetransitions of the vertical clock signal CV, as discussed further belowin connection with FIG. 18. The last row select signal RowSel₅₁₂ alsomay be taken as an optional output of the array 100 as the signal LSTV(Last STage Vertical), which provides an indication (e.g., fordiagnostic purposes) that the last row of the array has been selected.While not shown explicitly in FIG. 14, each of the row select signalsRowSel₁ through RowSel₅₁₂ is applied to a corresponding inverter, theoutput of which is used to enable a given pixel in each column (asillustrated in FIG. 9 by the signals RowSel₁ through RowSel_(n) ).

Regarding the column select shift registers 194 ₁ and 194 ₂, these areimplemented in a manner similar to that of the row select shiftregisters, with each column select shift register comprising 256series-connected flip-flops and responsible for enabling readout fromeither the odd columns of the array or the even columns of the array.For example, FIG. 15 illustrates the column select shift register 194 ₂,which is configured to enable readout from all of the even numberedcolumns of the array in succession via the column select signalsColSel₂, ColSel₄, . . . ColSel₅₁₂, whereas another column select shiftregister 194 ₁ is configured to enable readout from all of the oddnumbered columns of the array in succession (via column select signalsColSel₁, ColSel₃, . . . Col Sel₅₁₁). Both column select shift registersare controlled simultaneously by the horizontal data signal DH and thehorizontal clock signal CH to provide the respective column selectsignals, as discussed further below in connection with FIG. 18. As shownin FIG. 15, the last column select signal ColSel₅₁₂ also may be taken asan optional output of the array 100 as the signal LSTH (Last STageHorizontal), which provides an indication (e.g., for diagnosticpurposes) that the last column of the array has been selected.

With reference again for the moment to FIG. 7, Applicants haverecognized and appreciated that an implementation for array row andcolumn selection based on shift registers, as discussed above inconnection with FIGS. 13-15, is a significant improvement to the row andcolumn decoder approach employed in various prior art ISFET arraydesigns, including the design of Milgrew et al. shown in FIG. 7. Inparticular, regarding the row decoder 92 and the column decoder 94 shownin FIG. 7, the complexity of implementing these components in anintegrated circuit array design increases dramatically as the size ofthe array is increased, as additional inputs to both decoders arerequired. For example, an array having 512 rows and columns as discussedabove in connection with FIG. 13 would require nine inputs (2⁹=512) perrow and column decoder if such a scheme were employed for row and columnselection; similarly, arrays having 7400 rows and 7400 columns, asdiscussed below in connection with other embodiments, would require 13inputs (2¹³=8192) per row and column decoder. In contrast, the row andcolumn select shift registers shown in FIGS. 14 and 15 require noadditional input signals as array size is increased, but ratheradditional D-type flip-flops (which are routinely implemented in a CMOSprocess). Thus, the shift register implementations shown in FIGS. 14 and15 provide an easily scalable solution to array row and columnselection.

In the embodiment of FIG. 13, the “odd” column select shift register 194₁ provides odd column select signals to an “odd” output driver 198 ₁ andthe even column select shift register 194 ₂ provides even column selectsignals to an “even” output driver 198 ₂. Both output drivers areconfigured similarly, and an example of the even output driver 198 ₂ isshown in FIG. 16. In particular, FIG. 16 shows that respective evencolumn output signals V_(COL2), V_(COL4), . . . V_(COL512) (refer toFIG. 9 for the generic column signal output V_(COLj)) are applied tocorresponding switches 191 ₂, 191 ₄, . . . 191 ₅₁₂, responsive to theeven column select signals ColSel₂, ColSel₄, . . . ColSel₅₁₂ provided bythe column select register 194 ₂, to successively couple the even columnoutput signals to the input of a buffer amplifier 199 (BUF) via a bus175. In FIG. 16, the buffer amplifier 199 receives power from an outputbuffer positive supply voltage VDDO and an output buffer supply groundVSSO, and is responsive to an output buffer bias voltage VBO0 to set acorresponding bias current for the buffer output. Given the highimpedance input of the buffer amplifier 199, a current sink 197responsive to a bias voltage VB3 is coupled to the bus 175 to provide anappropriate drive current (e.g., on the order of approximately 100 μA)for the output of the column output buffer (see the buffer amplifier 111j of FIG. 9) of a selected column. The buffer amplifier 199 provides theoutput signal Vout2 based on the selected even column of the array; atthe same time, with reference to FIG. 13, a corresponding bufferamplifier of the “odd” output driver 198 ₁ provides the output signalVout1 based on a selected odd column of the array.

In one exemplary implementation, the switches of both the even and oddoutput drivers 198 ₁ and 198 ₂ (e.g., the switches 191 ₂, 191 ₄, . . .191 ₅₁₂ shown in FIG. 16) may be implemented as CMOS-pair transmissiongates (including an n-channel MOSFET and a p-channel MOSFET; see FIG.4), and inverters may be employed so that each column select signal andits complement may be applied to a given transmission gate switch 191 toenable switching. Each switch 191 has a series resistance when enabledor “on” to couple a corresponding column output signal to the bus 175;likewise, each switch adds a capacitance to the bus 175 when the switchis off. A larger switch reduces series resistance and allows a higherdrive current for the bus 175, which generally allows the bus 175 tosettle more quickly; on the other hand, a larger switch increasescapacitance of the bus 175 when the switch is off, which in turnincreases the settling time of the bus 175. Hence, there is a trade-offbetween switch series resistance and capacitance in connection withswitch size.

The ability of the bus 175 to settle quickly following enabling ofsuccessive switches in turn facilitates rapid data acquisition from thearray. To this end, in some embodiments the switches 191 of the outputdrivers 198 ₁ and 198 ₂ are particularly configured to significantlyreduce the settling time of the bus 175. Both the n-channel and thep-channel MOSFETs of a given switch add to the capacitance of the bus175; however, n-channel MOSFETs generally have better frequency responseand current drive capabilities than their p-channel counterparts. Inview of the foregoing, Applicants have recognized and appreciated thatsome of the superior characteristics of n-channel MOSFETs may beexploited to improve settling time of the bus 175 by implementing“asymmetric” switches in which respective sizes for the n-channel MOSFETand p-channel MOSFET of a given switch are different.

For example, in one embodiment, with reference to FIG. 16, the currentsink 197 may be configured such that the bus 175 is normally “pulleddown” when all switches 191 ₂, 191 ₄, . . . 191 ₅₁₂ are open or off (notconducting). Given a somewhat limited expected signal dynamic range forthe column output signals based on ISFET measurements, when a givenswitch is enabled or on (conducting), in many instances most of theconduction is done by the n-channel MOSFET of the CMOS-pair constitutingthe switch. Accordingly, in one aspect of this embodiment, the n-channelMOSFET and the p-channel MOSFET of each switch 191 are sizeddifferently; namely, in one exemplary implementation, the n-channelMOSFET is sized to be significantly larger than the p-channel MOSFET.More specifically, considering equally-sized n-channel and p-channelMOSFETs as a point of reference, in one implementation the n-channelMOSFET may be increased to be about 2 to 2.5 times larger, and thep-channel MOSFET may be decreased in size to be about 8 to 10 timessmaller, such that the n-channel MOSFET is approximately 20 times largerthan the p-channel MOSFET. Due to the significant decrease in size ofthe p-channel MOSFET and the relatively modest increase in size of then-channel MOSFET, the overall capacitance of the switch in the off stateis notably reduced, and there is a corresponding notable reduction incapacitance for the bus 175; at the same time, due to the largern-channel MOSFET, there is a significant increase in current drivecapability, frequency response and transconductance of the switch, whichin turn results in a significant reduction in settling time of the bus175.

While the example above describes asymmetric switches 191 for the outputdrivers 198 ₁ and 198 ₂ in which the n-channel MOSFET is larger than thep-channel MOSFET, it should be appreciated that in another embodiment,the converse may be implemented, namely, asymmetric switches in whichthe p-channel MOSFET is larger than the n-channel MOSFET. In one aspectof this embodiment, with reference again to FIG. 16, the current sink197 may alternatively serve as a source of current to appropriatelydrive the output of the column output buffer (see the buffer amplifier111 j of FIG. 9) of a selected column, and be configured such that thebus 175 is normally “pulled up” when all switches 191 ₂, 191 ₄, . . .191 ₅₁₂ are open or off (not conducting). In this situation, most of theswitch conduction may be accomplished by the p-channel MOSFET of theCMOS-pair constituting the switch. Benefits of reduced switchcapacitance (and hence reduced bus capacitance) may be realized in thisembodiment, although the overall beneficial effect of reduced settlingtime for the bus 175 may be somewhat less than that described previouslyabove, due to the lower frequency response of p-channel MOSFETs ascompared to n-channel MOSFETs. Nevertheless, asymmetric switches basedon larger p-channel MOSFETs may still facilitate a notable reduction inbus settling time, and may also provide for circuit implementations inwhich the column output buffer amplifier (111 j of FIG. 9) may be abody-tied source follower with appreciably increased gain.

In yet another embodiment directed to facilitating rapid settling of thebus 175 shown in FIG. 16, it may be appreciated that fewer switches 191coupled to the bus 175 results in a smaller bus capacitance. With thisin mind, and with reference again to FIG. 13, in yet another embodiment,more than two output drivers 198 ₁ and 198 ₂ may be employed in theISFET array 100 such that each output driver handles a smaller number ofcolumns of the array. For example, rather than having all even columnshandled by one driver and all odd columns handled by another driver, thearray may include four column select registers 194 _(1,2,3,4) and fourcorresponding output drivers 198 _(1,2,3,4) such that each output driverhandles one-fourth of the total columns of the array, rather thanone-half of the columns. In such an implementation, each output driverwould accordingly have half the number of switches 191 as compared withthe embodiment discussed above in connection with FIG. 16, and the bus175 of each output driver would have a corresponding lower capacitance,thereby improving bus settling time. While four output drivers arediscussed for purposes of illustration in this example, it should beappreciated that the present disclosure is not limited in this respect,and virtually any number of output drivers greater than two may beemployed to improve bus settling time in the scenario described above.Other array embodiments in which more than two output drivers areemployed to facilitate rapid data acquisition from the array arediscussed in greater detail below (e.g., in connection with FIGS.19-23).

For purposes of illustration, the bus 175 may have a capacitance in therange of approximately 5 pF to 20 pF in any of the embodiments discussedimmediately above (e.g. symmetric switches, asymmetric switches, greaternumbers of output drivers, etc.). Of course, it should be appreciatedthat the capacitance of the bus 175 is not limited to these exemplaryvalues, and that other capacitance values are possible in differentimplementations of an array according to the present disclosure.

In one aspect of the array design discussed above in connection withFIGS. 13-16, separate analog supply voltage connections (for VDDA,VSSA), digital supply voltage connections (for VDDD, VSSD) and outputbuffer supply voltage connections (for VDDO, VSSO) are provided on thearray to facilitate noise isolation and reduce signal cross-talk amongstvarious array components, thereby increasing the signal-to-noise ratio(SNR) of the output signals Vout1 and Vout2. In one exemplaryimplementation, the positive supply voltages VDDA, VDDD and VDDO eachmay be approximately 3.3 Volts. In another aspect, these voltagesrespectively may be provided “off chip” by one or more programmablevoltage sources, as discussed further below in connection with FIG. 17.

FIG. 17 illustrates a block diagram of the sensor array 100 of FIG. 13coupled to an array controller 250, according to one inventiveembodiment of the present disclosure. In various exemplaryimplementations, the array controller 250 may be fabricated as a “standalone” controller, or as one or more computer compatible “cards” formingpart of a computer 260, as discussed above in connection with FIG. 8. Inone aspect, the functions of the array controller 250 may be controlledby the computer 260 through an interface block 252 (e.g., serialinterface, via USB port or PCI bus, Ethernet connection, etc.), as shownin FIG. 17. In one embodiment, all or a portion of the array controller250 is fabricated as one or more printed circuit boards, and the array100 is configured to plug into one of the printed circuit boards,similar to a conventional IC chip (e.g., the array 100 is configured asan ASIC that plugs into a chip socket, such as a zero-insertion-force or“ZIF” socket, of a printed circuit board). In one aspect of such anembodiment, an array 100 configured as an ASIC may include one or morepins/terminal connections dedicated to providing an identification code,indicated as “ID” in FIG. 17, that may be accessed/read by the arraycontroller 250 and/or passed on to the computer 260. Such anidentification code may represent various attributes of the array 100(e.g., size, number of pixels, number of output signals, variousoperating parameters such as supply and/or bias voltages, etc.) and maybe processed to determine corresponding operating modes, parameters andor signals provided by the array controller 250 to ensure appropriateoperation with any of a number of different types of arrays 100. In oneexemplary implementation, an array 100 configured as an ASIC may beprovided with three pins dedicated to an identification code, and duringthe manufacturing process the ASIC may be encoded to provide one ofthree possible voltage states at each of these three pins (i.e., atri-state pin coding scheme) to be read by the array controller 250,thereby providing for 27 unique array identification codes. In anotheraspect of this embodiment, all or portions of the array controller 250may be implemented as a field programmable gate array (FPGA) configuredto perform various array controller functions described in furtherdetail below.

Generally, the array controller 250 provides various supply voltages andbias voltages to the array 100, as well as various signals relating torow and column selection, sampling of pixel outputs and dataacquisition. In particular, the array controller 250 reads one or moreanalog output signals (e.g., Vout1 and Vout2) including multiplexedrespective pixel voltage signals from the array 100 and then digitizesthese respective pixel signals to provide measurement data to thecomputer 260, which in turn may store and/or process the data. In someimplementations, the array controller 250 also may be configured toperform or facilitate various array calibration and diagnosticfunctions, and an optional array UV irradiation treatment as discussedabove in connection with FIG. 11A.

As illustrated in FIG. 17, the array controller 250 generally providesto the array 100 the analog supply voltage and ground (VDDA, VSSA), thedigital supply voltage and ground (VDDD, VSSD), and the buffer outputsupply voltage and ground (VDDO, VSSO). In one exemplary implementation,each of the supply voltages VDDA, VDDD and VDDO is approximately 3.3Volts. In another implementation, the supply voltages VDDA, VDDD andVDDO may be as low as approximately 1.8 Volts. As discussed above, inone aspect each of these power supply voltages is provided to the array100 via separate conducting paths to facilitate noise isolation. Inanother aspect, these supply voltages may originate from respectivepower supplies/regulators, or one or more of these supply voltages mayoriginate from a common source in a power supply 258 of the arraycontroller 250. The power supply 258 also may provide the various biasvoltages required for array operation (e.g., VB1, VB2, VB3, VB4, VBO0,V_(BODY)) and the reference voltage VREF used for array diagnostics andcalibration.

In another aspect, the power supply 258 includes one or moredigital-to-analog converters (DACs) that may be controlled by thecomputer 260 to allow any or all of the bias voltages, referencevoltage, and supply voltages to be changed under software control (i.e.,programmable bias settings). For example, a power supply 258 responsiveto computer control (e.g., via software execution) may facilitateadjustment of one or more of the supply voltages (e.g., switchingbetween 3.3 Volts and 1.8 Volts depending on chip type as represented byan identification code), and or adjustment of one or more of the biasvoltages VB1 and VB2 for pixel drain current, VB3 for column bus drive,VB4 for column amplifier bandwidth, and VBO0 for column output buffercurrent drive. In some aspects, one or more bias voltages may beadjusted to optimize settling times of signals from enabled pixels.Additionally, the common body voltage V_(BODY) for all ISFETs of thearray may be grounded during an optional post-fabrication UV irradiationtreatment to reduce trapped charge, and then coupled to a higher voltage(e.g., VDDA) during diagnostic analysis, calibration, and normaloperation of the array for measurement/data acquisition. Likewise, thereference voltage VREF may be varied to facilitate a variety ofdiagnostic and calibration functions.

As also shown in FIG. 17, the reference electrode 76 which is typicallyemployed in connection with an analyte solution to be measured by thearray 100 (as discussed above in connection with FIG. 1), may be coupledto the power supply 258 to provide a reference potential for the pixeloutput voltages. For example, in one implementation the referenceelectrode 76 may be coupled to a supply ground (e.g., the analog groundVSSA) to provide a reference for the pixel output voltages based on Eq.(3) above. In other exemplary implementations, the reference electrodevoltage may be set by placing a solution/sample of interest having aknown pH level in proximity to the sensor array 100 and adjusting thereference electrode voltage until the array output signals Vout1 andVout2 provide pixel voltages at a desired reference level, from whichsubsequent changes in pixel voltages reflect local changes in pH withrespect to the known reference pH level. In general, it should beappreciated that a voltage associated with the reference electrode 76need not necessarily be identical to the reference voltage VREFdiscussed above (which may be employed for a variety of array diagnosticand calibration functions), although in some implementations thereference voltage VREF provided by the power supply 258 may be used toset the voltage of the reference electrode 76.

Regarding data acquisition from the array 100, in one embodiment thearray controller 250 of FIG. 17 may include one or more preamplifiers253 to further buffer one or more output signals (e.g., Vout1 and Vout2)from the sensor array and provide selectable gain. In one aspect, thearray controller 250 may include one preamplifier for each output signal(e.g., two preamplifiers for two analog output signals). In otheraspects, the preamplifiers may be configured to accept input voltagesfrom 0.0 to 1.8 Volts or 0.0 to 3.3 Volts, may haveprogrammable/computer selectable gains (e.g., 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20) andlow noise outputs (e.g., <10 nV/sqrtHz), and may provide low passfiltering (e.g., bandwidths of 5 MHz and 25 MHz). With respect to noisereduction and increasing signal-to-noise ratio, in one implementation inwhich the array 100 is configured as an ASIC placed in a chip socket ofa printed circuit board containing all or a portion of the arraycontroller 250, filtering capacitors may be employed in proximity to thechip socket (e.g., the underside of a ZIF socket) to facilitate noisereduction. In yet another aspect, the preamplifiers may have aprogrammable/computer selectable offset for input and/or output voltagesignals to set a nominal level for either to a desired range.

The array controller 250 of FIG. 17 also comprises one or moreanalog-to-digital converters 254 (ADCs) to convert the sensor arrayoutput signals Vout1 and Vout2 to digital outputs (e.g., 10-bit or12-bit) so as to provide data to the computer 260. In one aspect, oneADC may be employed for each analog output of the sensor array, and eachADC may be coupled to the output of a corresponding preamplifier (ifpreamplifiers are employed in a given implementation). In anotheraspect, the ADC(s) may have a computer-selectable input range (e.g., 50mV, 200 mV, 500 mV, 1V) to facilitate compatibility with differentranges of array output signals and/or preamplifier parameters. In yetother aspects, the bandwidth of the ADC(s) may be greater than 60 MHz,and the data acquisition/conversion rate greater than 25 MHz (e.g., ashigh as 100 MHz or greater).

In the embodiment of FIG. 17, ADC acquisition timing and array row andcolumn selection may be controlled by a timing generator 256. Inparticular, the timing generator provides the digital vertical data andclock signals (DV, CV) to control row selection, the digital horizontaldata and clock signals (DH, CH) to control column selection, and thecolumn sample and hold signal COL SH to sample respective pixel voltagesfor an enabled row, as discussed above in connection with FIG. 9. Thetiming generator 256 also provides a sampling clock signal CS to theADC(s) 254 so as to appropriately sample and digitize consecutive pixelvalues in the data stream of a given array analog output signal (e.g.,Vout1 and Vout2), as discussed further below in connection with FIG. 18.In some implementations, the timing generator 256 may be implemented bya microprocessor executing code and configured as a multi-channeldigital pattern generator to provide appropriately timed controlsignals. In one exemplary implementation, the timing generator 256 maybe implemented as a field-programmable gate array (FPGA).

FIG. 18 illustrates an exemplary timing diagram for various arraycontrol signals, as provided by the timing generator 256, to acquirepixel data from the sensor array 100. For purposes of the followingdiscussion, a “frame” is defined as a data set that includes a value(e.g., pixel output signal or voltage V_(S)) for each pixel in thearray, and a “frame rate” is defined as the rate at which successiveframes may be acquired from the array. Thus, the frame rate correspondsessentially to a “pixel sampling rate” for each pixel of the array, asdata from any given pixel is obtained at the frame rate.

In the example of FIG. 18, an exemplary frame rate of 20 frames/sec ischosen to illustrate operation of the array (i.e., row and columnselection and signal acquisition); however, it should be appreciatedthat arrays and array controllers according to the present disclosureare not limited in this respect, as different frame rates, includinglower frame rates (e.g., 1 to 10 frames/second) or higher frame rates(e.g., 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 to 100 frames/sec., etc.), with arrayshaving the same or higher numbers of pixels, are possible. In someexemplary applications, a data set may be acquired that includes manyframes over several seconds to conduct an experiment on a given analyteor analytes. Several such experiments may be performed in succession, insome cases with pauses in between to allow for data transfer/processingand/or washing of the sensor array ASIC and reagent preparation for asubsequent experiment.

For example, with respect to the method for detecting nucleotideincorporation, discussed above, in which one or more ion pulses aregenerated in the output signal of a given ISFET pixel of the arrayduring a nucleic acid synthesis or sequencing reaction in a reactionwell above the ISFET, appropriate frame rates may be chosen tosufficiently sample the ISFET's output signal so as to effectivelydetect the presence of one or more pulses and the time interval betweenpulses. In some exemplary implementations, one or more ion pulses may begenerated having a full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) on the order ofapproximately 1 second to approximately 2.5 seconds, and time intervalsbetween successive pulse peaks (if multiple pulses are generated) on theorder of approximately 1 to 20 seconds, depending on the number ofnucleotide incorporation events. Given these exemplary values, a framerate (or pixel sampling rate) of 20 Hz is sufficient to reliably resolvethe one or more pulses in a given pixel's output signal. Again, thepulse characteristics and frame rate given in this example are providedprimarily for purposes of illustration, and different pulsecharacteristics and frame rates may be involved in otherimplementations.

In one implementation, the array controller 250 controls the array 100to enable rows successively, one at a time. For example, with referenceagain for the moment to FIG. 9, a first row of pixels is enabled via therow select signal RowSel₁ . The enabled pixels are allowed to settle forsome time period, after which the COL SH signal is asserted briefly toclose the sample/hold switch in each column and store on the column'ssample/hold capacitor C_(sh) the voltage value output by the first pixelin the column. This voltage is then available as the column outputvoltage V_(COLj) applied to one of the two (odd and even column) arrayoutput drivers 198 ₁ and 198 ₂ (e.g., see FIG. 16). The COL SH signal isthen de-asserted, thereby opening the sample/hold switches in eachcolumn and decoupling the column output buffer 111 j from the columnamplifiers 107A and 107B. Shortly thereafter, the second row of pixelsis enabled via the row select signal RowSel₂ . During the time period inwhich the second row of pixels is allowed to settle, the column selectsignals are generated two at a time (one odd and one even; odd columnselect signals are applied in succession to the odd output driver, evencolumn select signals are applied in succession to the even outputdriver) to read the column output voltages associated with the firstrow. Thus, while a given row in the array is enabled and settling, theprevious row is being read out, two columns at a time. By staggering rowselection and sampling/readout (e.g., via different vertical andhorizontal clock signals and column sample/hold), and by readingmultiple columns at a time for a given row, a frame of data may beacquired from the array in a significantly streamlined manner.

FIG. 18 illustrates the timing details of the foregoing process for anexemplary frame rate of 20 frames/sec. Given this frame rate and 512rows in the array, each row must be read out in approximately 98microseconds, as indicated by the vertical delineations in FIG. 18.Accordingly, the vertical clock signal CV has a period of 98microseconds (i.e., a clock frequency of over 10 kHz), with a new rowbeing enabled on a trailing edge (negative transition) of the CV signal.The left side of FIG. 18 reflects the beginning of a new frame cycle, atwhich point the vertical data signal DV is asserted before a firsttrailing edge of the CV signal and de-asserted before the next trailingedge of the CV signal (for data acquisition from successive frames, thevertical data signal is reasserted again only after row 512 is enabled).Also, immediately before each trailing edge of the CV signal (i.e., newrow enabled), the COL SH signal is asserted for 2 microseconds, leavingapproximately 50 nanoseconds before the trailing edge of the CV signal.

In FIG. 18, the first occurrence of the COL SH signal is actuallysampling the pixel values of row 512 of the array. Thus, upon the firsttrailing edge of the CV signal, the first row is enabled and allowed tosettle (for approximately 96 microseconds) until the second occurrenceof the COL SH signal. During this settling time for the first row, thepixel values of row 512 are read out via the column select signals.Because two column select signals are generated simultaneously to read512 columns, the horizontal clock signal CH must generate 256 cycleswithin this period, each trailing edge of the CH signal generating oneodd and one even column select signal. As shown in FIG. 18, the firsttrailing edge of the CH signal in a given row is timed to occur twomicroseconds after the selection of the row (after deactivation of theCOL SH signal) to allow for settling of the voltage values stored on thesample/hold capacitors C_(sh) and provided by the column output buffers.It should be appreciated however that, in other implementations (e.g.,as discussed below in connection with FIG. 18A), the time period betweenthe first trailing edge of the CH signal and a trailing edge (i.e.,deactivation) of the COL SH signal may be significantly less than twomicroseconds, and in some cases as small as just over 50 nanoseconds.Also for each row, the horizontal data signal DH is asserted before thefirst trailing edge of the CH signal and de-asserted before the nexttrailing edge of the CH signal. The last two columns (e.g., 511 and 512)are selected before the occurrence of the COL SH signal which, asdiscussed above, occurs approximately two microseconds before the nextrow is enabled. Thus, 512 columns are read, two at a time, within a timeperiod of approximately 94 microseconds (i.e., 98 microseconds per row,minus two microseconds at the beginning and end of each row). Thisresults in a data rate for each of the array output signals Vout1 andVout2 of approximately 2.7 MHz.

FIG. 18A illustrates another timing diagram of a data acquisitionprocess from an array 100 that is slightly modified from the timingdiagram of FIG. 18. As discussed above in connection with FIG. 13, insome implementations an array similar to that shown in FIG. 13 may beconfigured to include a region of 512 by 512 “active” pixels that aresurrounded by a perimeter of reference pixels (i.e., the first and lasttwo rows and columns of the array), resulting in an array having a totalpixel count of 516 by 516 pixels. Accordingly, given the exemplary framerate of 20 frames/sec and 516 rows in the array, each row must be readout in approximately 97 microseconds, as indicated by the verticaldelineations in FIG. 18A. Accordingly, the vertical clock signal CV hasa slightly smaller period of 97 microseconds. Because two column selectsignals are generated simultaneously to read 516 columns, the horizontalclock signal CH must generate 258 cycles within this period, as opposedto the 256 cycles referenced in connection with FIG. 18. Accordingly, inone aspect illustrated in FIG. 18A, the first trailing edge of the CHsignal in a given row is timed to occur just over 50 nanoseconds fromthe trailing edge (i.e., deactivation) of the COL SH signal, so as to“squeeze” additional horizontal clock cycles into a slightly smallerperiod of the vertical clock signal CV. As in FIG. 18, the horizontaldata signal DH is asserted before the first trailing edge of the CHsignal, and as such also occurs slightly earlier in the timing diagramof FIG. 18A as compared to FIG. 18. The last two columns (i.e., columns515 and 516, labeled as “Ref3,4 in FIG. 18A) are selected before theoccurrence of the COL SH signal which, as discussed above, occursapproximately two microseconds before the next row is enabled. Thus, 516columns are read, two at a time, within a time period of approximately95 microseconds (i.e., 97 microseconds per row, minus two microsecondsat the end of each row and negligible time at the beginning of eachrow). This results in essentially the same data rate for each of thearray output signals Vout1 and Vout2 provided by the timing diagram ofFIG. 18, namely, approximately 2.7 MHz.

As discussed above in connection with FIG. 17, the timing generator 256also generates the sampling clock signal CS to the ADC(s) 254 so as toappropriately sample and digitize consecutive pixel values in the datastream of a given array output signal. In one aspect, the sampling clocksignal CS provides for sampling a given pixel value in the data streamat least once. Although the sampling clock signal CS is not shown in thetiming diagrams of FIGS. 18 and 18A, it may be appreciated that inexemplary implementations the signal CS may essentially track the timingof the horizontal clock signal CH; in particular, the sampling clocksignal CS may be coordinated with the horizontal clock signal CH so asto cause the ADC(s) to sample a pixel value immediately prior to a nextpixel value in the data stream being enabled by CH, thereby allowing foras much signal settling time as possible prior to sampling a given pixelvalue. For example, the ADC(s) may be configured to sample an inputpixel value upon a positive transition of CS, and respective positivetransitions of CS may be timed by the timing generator 256 to occurimmediately prior to, or in some cases essentially coincident with,respective negative transitions of CH, so as to sample a given pixeljust prior to the next pixel in the data stream being enabled. Inanother exemplary implementation, the ADC(s) 254 may be controlled bythe timing generator 256 via the sampling clock signal CS to sample theoutput signals Vout1 and Vout2 at a significantly higher rate to providemultiple digitized samples for each pixel measurement, which may then beaveraged (e.g., the ADC data acquisition rate may be approximately 100MHz to sample the 2.7 MHz array output signals, thereby providing asmany as approximately 35-40 samples per pixel measurement).

In one embodiment, once pixel values are sampled and digitized by theADC(s) 254, the computer 260 may be programmed to process pixel dataobtained from the array 100 and the array controller 250 so as tofacilitate high data acquisition rates that in some cases may exceed asufficient settling time for pixel voltages represented in a given arrayoutput signal. A flow chart illustrating an exemplary method accordingto one embodiment of the present invention that may be implemented bythe computer 260 for processing and correction of array data acquired athigh acquisition rates is illustrated in FIG. 18B. In various aspects ofthis embodiment, the computer 260 is programmed to first characterize asufficient settling time for pixel voltages in a given array outputsignal, as well as array response at appreciably high operatingfrequencies, using a reference or “dry” input to the array (e.g., noanalyte present). This characterization forms the basis for derivingcorrection factors that are subsequently applied to data obtained fromthe array at the high operating frequencies and in the presence of ananalyte to be measured.

Regarding pixel settling time, with reference again to FIG. 16, asdiscussed above a given array output signal (e.g., Vout2 in FIG. 16)includes a series of pixel voltage values resulting from the sequentialoperation of the column select switches 191 to apply respective columnvoltages V_(COLj) via the bus 175 to the buffer amplifier 199 (therespective column voltages V_(COLj) in turn represent buffered versionsof ISFET source voltages V_(Sj)). In some implementations, it isobserved that voltage changes ΔV_(PIX) in the array output signalbetween two consecutive pixel reads is characterized as an exponentialprocess given byΔV _(PIX)(t)=A(1−e ^(−t/k)),  (PP)where A is the difference (V_(COLj)−V_(COLj-1)) between two pixelvoltage values and k is a time constant associated with a capacitance ofthe bus 175. FIGS. 18C and 18D illustrate exemplary pixel voltages in agiven array output signal Vout (e.g., one of Vout1 and Vout2) showingpixel-to-pixel transitions in the output signal as a function of time,plotted against exemplary sampling clock signals CS. In FIG. 18C, thesampling clock signal CS has a period 524, and an ADC controlled by CSsamples a pixel voltage upon a positive transition of CS (as discussedabove, in one implementation CS and CH have essentially a same period).FIG. 18C indicates two samples 525A and 525B, between which anexponential voltage transition 522 corresponding to ΔV_(PIX)(t), betweena voltage difference A, may be readily observed.

For purposes of the present discussion, pixel “settling time” t_(settle)is defined as the time t at which ΔV_(PIX) (t) attains a value thatdiffers from it's final value by an amount that is equal to the peaknoise level of the array output signal. If the peak noise level of thearray output signal is denoted as n_(p), then the voltage at thesettling time t_(settle) is given byΔV_(PIX)(t_(settle))=A[1−(n_(p)/A)]. Substituting in Eq. (PP) andsolving for t_(settle) yields

$\begin{matrix}{t_{settle} = {{- k}\mspace{11mu}{{\ln\left( \frac{n_{p}}{A} \right)}.}}} & ({QQ})\end{matrix}$FIG. 18D conceptually illustrates a pixel settling time t_(settle)(reference numeral 526) for a single voltage transition 522 between twopixel voltages having a difference A, using a sampling clock signal CShaving a sufficiently long period so as to allow for full settling. Toprovide some exemplary parameters for purposes of illustration, in oneimplementation a maximum value for A, representing a maximum range forpixel voltage transitions (e.g., consecutive pixels at minimum andmaximum values), is on the order of approximately 250 mV. Additionally,a peak noise level n_(p) of the array output signal is taken asapproximately 100 μV, and the time constant k is taken as 5 nanoseconds.These values provide an exemplary settling time t_(settle) ofapproximately 40 nanoseconds. If a maximum data rate of an array outputsignal is taken as the inverse of the settling time t_(settle), asettling time of 40 nanoseconds corresponds to maximum data rate of 25MHz. In other implementations, A may be on the order of 20 mV and thetime constant k may be on the order of 15 nanoseconds, resulting in asettling time t_(settle) of approximately 80 nanoseconds and a maximumdata rate of 12.5 MHz. The values of k indicated above generallycorrespond to capacitances for the bus 175 in a range of approximately 5pF to 20 pF. It should be appreciated that the foregoing values areprovided primarily for purposes of illustration, and that variousembodiments of the present invention are not limited to these exemplaryvalues; in particular, arrays according to various embodiment of thepresent invention may have different pixel settling times t_(settle)(e.g., in some cases less than 40 nanoseconds).

As indicated above, in one embodiment pixel data may be acquired fromthe array at data rates that exceed those dictated by the pixel settlingtime. FIG. 18B illustrates a flow chart for such a method according toone inventive embodiment of the present disclosure. In the method ofFIG. 18B, sufficiently slow clock frequencies initially are chosen forthe signals CV, CH and CS such that the resulting data rate per arrayoutput signal is equal to or lower than the reciprocal of the pixelsettling time t_(settle) to allow for fully settled pixel voltage valuesfrom pixel to pixel in a given output signal. With these clockfrequencies, as indicated in block 502 of FIG. 18B, settled pixelvoltage values are then acquired for the entire array in the absence ofan analyte (or in the presence of a reference analyte) to provide afirst “dry” or reference data image for the array. In block 504 of FIG.18B, for each pixel voltage constituting the first data image, atransition value between the pixel's final voltage and the final voltageof the immediately preceding pixel in the corresponding output signaldata stream (i.e., the voltage difference A) is collected and stored.The collection of these transition values for all pixels of the arrayprovides a first transition value data set.

Subsequently, in block 506 of FIG. 18B, the clock frequencies for thesignals CV, CH and CS are increased such that the resulting data rateper array output signal exceeds a rate at which pixel voltage values arefully settled (i.e., a data rate higher than the reciprocal of thesettling time t_(settle)). For purposes of the present discussion, thedata rate per array output signal resulting from the selection of suchincreased clock frequencies for the signals CV, CH and CS is referred toas an “overspeed data rate.” Using the clock frequencies correspondingto the overspeed data rate, pixel voltage values are again obtained forthe entire array in the absence of an analyte (or in the presence of thesame reference analyte) to provide a second “dry” or reference dataimage for the array. In block 508 of FIG. 18B, a second transition valuedata set based on the second data image obtained at the overspeed datarate is calculated and stored, as described above for the first dataimage.

In block 510 of FIG. 18B, a correction factor for each pixel of thearray is calculated based on the values stored in the first and secondtransition value data sets. For example, a correction factor for eachpixel may be calculated as a ratio of its transition value from thefirst transition value data set and its corresponding transition valuefrom the second transition value data set (e.g., the transition valuefrom the first data set may be divided by the transition value from thesecond data set, or vice versa) to provide a correction factor data setwhich is then stored. As noted in blocks 512 and 514 of FIG. 18B, thiscorrection factor data set may then be employed to process pixel dataobtained from the array operated at clock frequencies corresponding tothe overspeed data rate, in the presence of an actual analyte to bemeasured; in particular, data obtained from the array at the overspeeddata rate in the presence of an analyte may be multiplied or divided asappropriate by the correction factor data set (e.g., each pixelmultiplied or divided by a corresponding correction factor) to obtaincorrected data representative of the desired analyte property to bemeasured (e.g., ion concentration). It should be appreciated that oncethe correction factor data set is calculated and stored, it may be usedrepeatedly to correct multiple frames of data acquired from the array atthe overspeed data rate.

In addition to controlling the sensor array and ADCs, the timinggenerator 256 may be configured to facilitate various array calibrationand diagnostic functions, as well as an optional UV irradiationtreatment. To this end, the timing generator may utilize the signal LSTVindicating the selection of the last row of the array and the signalLSTH to indicate the selection of the last column of the array. Thetiming generator 256 also may be responsible for generating the CALsignal which applies the reference voltage VREF to the column bufferamplifiers, and generating the UV signal which grounds the drains of allISFETs in the array during a UV irradiation process (see FIG. 9). Thetiming generator also may provide some control function over the powersupply 258 during various calibration and diagnostic functions, or UVirradiation, to appropriately control supply or bias voltages; forexample, during UV irradiation, the timing generator may control thepower supply to couple the body voltage V_(BODY) to ground while the UVsignal is activated to ground the ISFET drains. With respect to arraycalibration and diagnostics, as well as UV irradiation, in someimplementations the timing generator may receive specialized programsfrom the computer 260 to provide appropriate control signals. In oneaspect, the computer 260 may use various data obtained from referenceand/or dummy pixels of the array, as well as column information based onthe application of the CAL signal and the reference voltage VREF, todetermine various calibration parameters associated with a given arrayand/or generate specialized programs for calibration and diagnosticfunctions.

With respect to the computer interface 252 of the array controller 250,in one exemplary implementation the interface is configured tofacilitate a data rate of approximately 200 MB/sec to the computer 260,and may include local storage of up to 400 MB or greater. The computer260 is configured to accept data at a rate of 200 MB/sec, and processthe data so as to reconstruct an image of the pixels (e.g., which may bedisplayed in false-color on a monitor). For example, the computer may beconfigured to execute a general-purpose program with routines written inC++ or Visual Basic to manipulate the data and display is as desired.

The systems described herein, when used for sequencing, typicallyinvolve a chemFET array supporting reaction chambers, the chemFETs beingcoupled to an interface capable of executing logic that converts thesignals from the chemFETs into sequencing information.

In some embodiments, the invention encompasses logic (preferablycomputer executable logic) for polymer sequencing, comprising logic fordetermining ion pulses associated with an ionic interaction with a PPior a dNTP or both. Typically, the logic converts characteristic(s) ofthe ion pulses into polymer sequencing information.

In some embodiments, the invention encompasses logic (preferablycomputer executable logic) comprising logic for determining a sequenceof a nucleic acid template based on time between ion pulses or acharacteristic of a single ion pulse. The logic may optionally furthercomprise logic for determining spatial location of the ion pulse on anarray of chemFETs.

In some embodiments, the invention encompasses logic (preferablycomputer executable logic) comprising logic for determining a sequenceof a nucleic acid template based on a duration of time it takes for aparticular dNTP to be utilized in a sequencing reaction. Typically, thelogic receives signal from one or more chemFETs. Preferably, thesequence is displayed in substantially real time.

In some embodiments, the invention encompasses logic (preferablycomputer executable logic) for processing ion pulses from an array ofchemFETs to determine the sequence of a polymer of interest. The logicmay optionally further comprise logic for file management, file storage,and visualization. The logic may also optionally further comprise logicfor converting the ion pulses into nucleotide sequences. Preferably, thesequence is displayed in substantially real time.

The sequencing information obtained from the system may be delivered toa handheld computing device, such as a personal digital assistant. Thus,in one embodiment, the invention encompasses logic for displaying acomplete genome of an organism on a handheld computing device. Theinvention also encompasses logic adapted for sending data from a chemFETarray to a handheld computing device. Any of such logic may becomputer-implemented.

Having discussed several aspects of an exemplary ISFET array and anarray controller according to the present disclosure, FIGS. 19-23illustrate block diagrams of alternative CMOS IC chip implementations ofISFET sensor arrays having greater numbers of pixels, according to yetother inventive embodiments. In one aspect, each of the ISFET arraysdiscussed further below in connection with FIGS. 19-23 may be controlledby an array controller similar to that shown in FIG. 17, in some caseswith minor modifications to accommodate higher numbers of pixels (e.g.,additional preamplifiers 253 and analog-to-digital converters 254).

FIG. 19 illustrates a block diagram of an ISFET sensor array 100A basedon the column and pixel designs discussed above in connection with FIGS.9-12A and a 0.35 micrometer CMOS fabrication process, according to oneinventive embodiment. The array 100A includes 2048 columns 102 ₁ through102 ₂₀₄₈, wherein each column includes 2048 geometrically square pixels105 ₁ through 105 ₂₀₄₈, each having a size of approximately 9micrometers by 9 micrometers. Thus, the array includes over four millionpixels (>4 Mega-pixels) and, in one exemplary implementation, thecomplete array (ISFET pixels and associated circuitry) may be fabricatedas an integrated circuit chip having dimensions of approximately 20.5millimeters by 20.5 millimeters.

In one aspect of the embodiment shown in FIG. 19, the array 100A may beconfigured, at least in part, as multiple groups of pixels that may berespectively controlled. For example, each column of pixels may bedivided into top and bottom halves, and the collection of pixels inrespective top halves of columns form a first group 400 ₁ of rows (e.g.,a top group, rows 1-1024) and the collection of pixels in respectivebottom halves of columns form a second group 400 ₂ of rows (e.g., abottom group, rows 1025-2048). In turn, each of the first and second(e.g., top and bottom) groups of rows is associated with correspondingrow select registers, column bias/readout circuitry, column selectregisters, and output drivers. In this manner, pixel selection and dataacquisition from each of the first and second groups of rows 400 ₁ and400 ₂ is substantially similar to pixel selection and data acquisitionfrom the entire array 100 shown in FIG. 13; stated differently, in oneaspect, the array 100A of FIG. 19 substantially comprises twosimultaneously controlled “sub-arrays” of different pixel groups toprovide for significantly streamlined data acquisition from highernumbers of pixels.

In particular, FIG. 19 shows that row selection of the first group 400 ₁of rows may be controlled by a first row select register 192 ₁, and rowselection of the second group 400 ₂ of rows may be controlled by asecond row select register 192 ₂. In one aspect, each of the row selectregisters 192 ₁ and 192 ₂ may be configured as discussed above inconnection with FIG. 14 to receive vertical clock (CV) and vertical data(DV) signals and generate row select signals in response; for examplethe first row select register 192 ₁ may generate the signals RowSel₁through RowSel₁₀₂₄ and the second row select register 192 ₂ may generatethe signals RowSel₁₀₂₅ through RowSel₂₀₄₈ . In another aspect, both rowselect registers 192 ₁ and 192 ₂ may simultaneously receive commonvertical clock and data signals, such that two rows of the array areenabled at any given time, one from the top group and another from thebottom group.

For each of the first and second groups of rows, the array 100A of FIG.19 further comprises column bias/readout circuitry 100 _(1T)-110_(2048T) (for the first row group 4000 and 110 _(1B)-110 _(2048B) (forthe second row group 400 ₂), such that each column includes twoinstances of the bias/readout circuitry 110 j shown in FIG. 9. The array100A also comprises two column select registers 192 _(1,2) (odd andeven) and two output drivers 198 _(1,2) (odd and even) for the secondrow group 400 ₂, and two column select registers 192 _(3,4) (odd andeven) and two output drivers 198 _(3,4) (odd and even) for the first rowgroup 400 ₁ (i.e., a total of four column select registers and fouroutput drivers). The column select registers receive horizontal clocksignals (CHT and CHB for the first row group and second row group,respectively) and horizontal data signals (DHT and DHB for the first rowgroup and second row group, respectively) to control odd and even columnselection. In one implementation, the CHT and CHB signals may beprovided as common signals, and the DHT and DHB may be provided ascommon signals, to simultaneously read out four columns at a time fromthe array (i.e., one odd and one even column from each row group); inparticular, as discussed above in connection with FIGS. 13-18, twocolumns may be simultaneously read for each enabled row and thecorresponding pixel voltages provided as two output signals. Thus, viathe enablement of two rows at any given time, and reading of two columnsper row at any given time, the array 100A may provide four simultaneousoutput signals Vout1, Vout2, Vout3 and Vout4.

In one exemplary implementation of the array 100A of FIG. 19, in whichcomplete data frames (all pixels from both the first and second rowgroups 400 ₁ and 400 ₂) are acquired at a frame rate of 20 frames/sec,1024 pairs of rows are successively enabled for periods of approximately49 microseconds each. For each enabled row, 1024 pixels are read out byeach column select register/output driver during approximately 45microseconds (allowing 2 microseconds at the beginning and end of eachrow, as discussed above in connection with FIG. 18). Thus, in thisexample, each of the array output signals Vout1, Vout2, Vout3 and Vout4has a data rate of approximately 23 MHz. Again, it should be appreciatedthat in other implementations, data may be acquired from the array 100Aof FIG. 19 at frame rates other than 20 frames/sec (e.g., 50-100frames/sec).

Like the array 100 of FIG. 13, in yet other aspects the array 100A ofFIG. 19 may include multiple rows and columns of dummy or referencepixels 103 around a perimeter of the array to facilitate preliminarytest/evaluation data, offset determination an/or array calibration.Additionally, various power supply and bias voltages required for arrayoperation (as discussed above in connection with FIG. 9) are provided tothe array 100A in block 195, in a manner similar to that discussed abovein connection with FIG. 13.

FIG. 20 illustrates a block diagram of an ISFET sensor array 100B basedon a 0.35 micrometer CMOS fabrication process and having a configurationsubstantially similar to the array 100A discussed above in FIG. 19,according to yet another inventive embodiment. While the array 100B alsois based generally on the column and pixel designs discussed above inconnection with FIGS. 9-12A, the pixel size/pitch in the array 100B issmaller than that of the pixel shown in FIG. 10. In particular, withreference again to FIGS. 10 and 11, the dimension “e” shown in FIG. 10is substantially reduced in the embodiment of FIG. 20, without affectingthe integrity of the active pixel components disposed in the centralregion of the pixel, from approximately 9 micrometers to approximately 5micrometers; similarly, the dimension “f” shown in FIG. 10 is reducedfrom approximately 7 micrometers to approximately 4 micrometers. Stateddifferently, some of the peripheral area of the pixel surrounding theactive components is substantially reduced with respect to thedimensions given in connection with FIG. 10, without disturbing thetop-view and cross-sectional layout and design of the pixel's activecomponents as shown in FIGS. 10 and 11. A top view of such a pixel 105Ais shown in FIG. 20A, in which the dimension “e” is 5.1 micrometers andthe dimension “f” is 4.1 micrometers. In one aspect of this pixeldesign, to facilitate size reduction, fewer body connections B areincluded in the pixel 105A (e.g., one at each corner of the pixel) ascompared to the pixel shown in FIG. 10, which includes several bodyconnections B around the entire perimeter of the pixel.

As noted in FIG. 20, the array 100B includes 1348 columns 102 ₁ through102 ₁₃₄₈, wherein each column includes 1152 geometrically square pixels105A₁ through 105A₁₁₅₂, each having a size of approximately 5micrometers by 5 micrometers. Thus, the array includes over 1.5 millionpixels (>1.5 Mega-pixels) and, in one exemplary implementation, thecomplete array (ISFET pixels and associated circuitry) may be fabricatedas an integrated circuit chip having dimensions of approximately 9millimeters by 9 millimeters. Like the array 100A of FIG. 19, in oneaspect the array 100B of FIG. 20 is divided into two groups of rows 400₁ and 400 ₂, as discussed above in connection with FIG. 19. In oneexemplary implementation, complete data frames (all pixels from both thefirst and second row groups 400 ₁ and 400 ₂) are acquired at a framerate of 50 frames/sec, thereby requiring 576 pairs of rows to besuccessively enabled for periods of approximately 35 microseconds each.For each enabled row, 674 pixels are read out by each column selectregister/output driver during approximately 31 microseconds (allowing 2microseconds at the beginning and end of each row, as discussed above inconnection with FIG. 18). Thus, in this example, each of the arrayoutput signals Vout1, Vout2, Vout3 and Vout4 has a data rate ofapproximately 22 MHz. Again, it should be appreciated that in otherimplementations, data may be acquired from the array 100B of FIG. 20 atframe rates other than 50 frames/sec.

FIG. 21 illustrates a block diagram of an ISFET sensor array 100C basedon a 0.35 micrometer CMOS fabrication process and incorporating thesmaller pixel size discussed above in connection with FIGS. 20 and 20A(5.1 micrometer square pixels), according to yet another embodiment. Asnoted in FIG. 21, the array 100C includes 4000 columns 102 ₁ through 102₄₀₀₀, wherein each column includes 3600 geometrically square pixels105A₁ through 105A₃₆₀₀, each having a size of approximately 5micrometers by 5 micrometers. Thus, the array includes over 14 millionpixels (>14 Mega-pixels) and, in one exemplary implementation, thecomplete array (ISFET pixels and associated circuitry) may be fabricatedas an integrated circuit chip having dimensions of approximately 22millimeters by 22 millimeters. Like the arrays 100A and 100B of FIGS. 19and 20, in one aspect the array 100C of FIG. 21 is divided into twogroups of rows 400 ₁ and 400 ₂. However, unlike the arrays 100A and100B, for each row group the array 100C includes sixteen column selectregisters and sixteen output drivers to simultaneously read sixteenpixels at a time in an enabled row, such that thirty-two output signalsVout1-Vout32 may be provided from the array 100C. In one exemplaryimplementation, complete data frames (all pixels from both the first andsecond row groups 400 ₁ and 400 ₂) may be acquired at a frame rate of 50frames/sec, thereby requiring 1800 pairs of rows to be successivelyenabled for periods of approximately 11 microseconds each. For eachenabled row, 250 pixels (4000/16) are read out by each column selectregister/output driver during approximately 7 microseconds (allowing 2microseconds at the beginning and end of each row). Thus, in thisexample, each of the array output signals Vout1-Vout32 has a data rateof approximately 35 MHz. As with the previous embodiments, it should beappreciated that in other implementations, data may be acquired from thearray 100C at frame rates other than 50 frames/sec.

While the exemplary arrays discussed above in connection with FIGS.13-21 are based on a 0.35 micrometer conventional CMOS fabricationprocess, it should be appreciated that arrays according to the presentdisclosure are not limited in this respect, as CMOS fabricationprocesses having feature sizes of less than 0.35 micrometers may beemployed (e.g., 0.18 micrometer CMOS processing techniques) to fabricatesuch arrays. Accordingly, ISFET sensor arrays with a pixel size/pitchsignificantly below 5 micrometers may be fabricated, providing forsignificantly denser ISFET arrays. For example, FIGS. 22 and 23illustrate respective block diagrams of ISFET sensor arrays 100D and100E according to yet other embodiments based on a 0.18 micrometer CMOSfabrication process, in which a pixel size of 2.6 micrometers isachieved. The pixel design itself is based substantially on the pixel105A shown in FIG. 20A, albeit on a smaller scale due to the 0.18micrometer CMOS process.

The array 100D of FIG. 22 includes 2800 columns 102 ₁ through 102 ₂₈₀₀,wherein each column includes 2400 geometrically square pixels eachhaving a size of approximately 2.6 micrometers by 2.6 micrometers. Thus,the array includes over 6.5 million pixels (>6.5 Mega-pixels) and, inone exemplary implementation, the complete array (ISFET pixels andassociated circuitry) may be fabricated as an integrated circuit chiphaving dimensions of approximately 9 millimeters by 9 millimeters. Likethe arrays 100A, 100B and 100C of FIGS. 19-21, in one aspect the array100D of FIG. 22 is divided into two groups of rows 400 ₁ and 400 ₂.However, unlike the arrays 100A, 100B, and 100C, for each row group thearray 100D includes eight column select registers and eight outputdrivers to simultaneously read eight pixels at a time in an enabled row,such that sixteen output signals Vout1-Vout16 may be provided from thearray 100D. In one exemplary implementation, complete data frames (allpixels from both the first and second row groups 400 ₁ and 400 ₂) may beacquired at a frame rate of 50 frames/sec, thereby requiring 1200 pairsof rows to be successively enabled for periods of approximately 16-17microseconds each. For each enabled row, 350 pixels (2800/8) are readout by each column select register/output driver during approximately 14microseconds (allowing 1 to 2 microseconds at the beginning and end ofeach row). Thus, in this example, each of the array output signalsVout1-Vout16 has a data rate of approximately 25 MHz. As with theprevious embodiments, it should be appreciated that in otherimplementations, data may be acquired from the array 100D at frame ratesother than 50 frames/sec.

The array 100E of FIG. 23 includes 7400 columns 102 ₁ through 102 ₇₄₀₀,wherein each column includes 7400 geometrically square pixels eachhaving a size of approximately 2.6 micrometers by 2.6 micrometers. Thus,the array includes over 54 million pixels (>54 Mega-pixels) and, in oneexemplary implementation, the complete array (ISFET pixels andassociated circuitry) may be fabricated as an integrated circuit chiphaving dimensions of approximately 21 millimeters by 21 millimeters.Like the arrays 100A-100D of FIGS. 19-22, in one aspect the array 100Eof FIG. 23 is divided into two groups of rows 400 ₁ and 400 ₂. However,unlike the arrays 100A-100D, for each row group the array 100E includesthirty-two column select registers and thirty-two output drivers tosimultaneously read thirty-two pixels at a time in an enabled row, suchthat sixty-four output signals Vout1-Vout64 may be provided from thearray 100E. In one exemplary implementation, complete data frames (allpixels from both the first and second row groups 400 ₁ and 400 ₂) may beacquired at a frame rate of 100 frames/sec, thereby requiring 3700 pairsof rows to be successively enabled for periods of approximately 3microseconds each. For each enabled row, 230 pixels (7400/32) are readout by each column select register/output driver during approximately700 nanoseconds. Thus, in this example, each of the array output signalsVout1-Vout64 has a data rate of approximately 328 MHz. As with theprevious embodiments, it should be appreciated that in otherimplementations, data may be acquired from the array 100D at frame ratesother than 100 frames/sec.

Thus, in various examples of ISFET arrays based on the inventiveconcepts disclosed herein, an array pitch of approximately nine (9)micrometers (e.g., a sensor surface area of less than ten micrometers byten micrometers) allows an ISFET array including over 256,000 pixels(i.e., a 512 by 512 array), together with associated row and columnselect and bias/readout electronics, to be fabricated on a 7 millimeterby 7 millimeter semiconductor die, and a similar sensor array includingover four million pixels (i.e., a 2048 by 2048 array, over 4Mega-pixels) to be fabricated on a 21 millimeter by 21 millimeter die.In other examples, an array pitch of approximately 5 micrometers allowsan ISFET array including approximately 1.55 Mega-pixels (i.e., a 1348 by1152 array) and associated electronics to be fabricated on a 9millimeter by 9 millimeter die, and an ISFET sensor array including over14 Mega-pixels and associated electronics on a 22 millimeter by 20millimeter die. In yet other implementations, using a CMOS fabricationprocess in which feature sizes of less than 0.35 micrometers arepossible (e.g., 0.18 micrometer CMOS processing techniques), ISFETsensor arrays with a pixel size/pitch significantly below 5 micrometersmay be fabricated (e.g., array pitch of 2.6 micrometers or pixel/sensorarea of less than 8 or 9 micrometers²), providing for significantlydense ISFET arrays.

In the embodiments of ISFET arrays discussed above, array pixels employa p-channel ISFET, as discussed above in connection with FIG. 9. Itshould be appreciated, however, that ISFET arrays according to thepresent disclosure are not limited in this respect, and that in otherembodiments pixel designs for ISFET arrays may be based on an n-channelISFET. In particular, any of the arrays discussed above in connectionwith FIGS. 13 and 19-23 may be implemented with pixels based onn-channel ISFETs.

For example, FIG. 24 illustrates the pixel design of FIG. 9 implementedwith an n-channel ISFET and accompanying n-channel MOSFETs, according toanother inventive embodiment of the present disclosure. Morespecifically, FIG. 24 illustrates one exemplary pixel 105 ₁ of an arraycolumn (i.e., the first pixel of the column), together with columnbias/readout circuitry 110 j, in which the ISFET 150 (Q1) is ann-channel ISFET Like the pixel design of FIG. 9, the pixel design ofFIG. 24 includes only three components, namely, the ISFET 150 and twon-channel MOSFET switches Q2 and Q3, responsive to one of n row selectsignals (RowSel₁ through RowSel_(n), logic high active). No transmissiongates are required in the pixel of FIG. 24, and all devices of the pixelare of a “same type,” i.e., n-channel devices. Also like the pixeldesign of FIG. 9, only four signal lines per pixel, namely the lines 112₁, 114 ₁, 116 ₁ and 118 ₁, are required to operate the three componentsof the pixel 105 ₁ shown in FIG. 24. In other respects, the pixeldesigns of FIG. 9 and FIG. 24 are similar, in that they are bothconfigured with a constant drain current I_(Dj) and a constantdrain-to-source voltage V_(DSj) to obtain an output signal V_(Sj) froman enabled pixel.

One of the primary differences between the n-channel ISFET pixel designof FIG. 24 and the p-channel ISFET design of FIG. 9 is the oppositedirection of current flow through the pixel. To this end, in FIG. 24,the element 106 _(j) is a controllable current sink coupled to theanalog circuitry supply voltage ground VSSA, and the element 108, of thebias/readout circuitry 110 j is a controllable current source coupled tothe analog positive supply voltage VDDA. Additionally, the bodyconnection of the ISFET 150 is not tied to its source, but rather to thebody connections of other ISFETs of the array, which in turn is coupledto the analog ground VSSA, as indicated in FIG. 24.

In addition to the pixel designs shown in FIGS. 9 and 24 (based on aconstant ISFET drain current and constant ISFET drain-source voltage),alternative pixel designs are contemplated for ISFET arrays, based onboth p-channel ISFETs and n-channel ISFETs, according to yet otherinventive embodiments of the present disclosure, as illustrated in FIGS.25-27. As discussed below, some alternative pixel designs may requireadditional and/or modified signals from the array controller 250 tofacilitate data acquisition. In particular, a common feature of thepixel designs shown in FIGS. 25-27 includes a sample and hold capacitorwithin each pixel itself, in addition to a sample and hold capacitor foreach column of the array. While the alternative pixel designs of FIGS.25-27 generally include a greater number of components than the pixeldesigns of FIGS. 9 and 24, the feature of a pixel sample and holdcapacitor enables “snapshot” types of arrays, in which all pixels of anarray may be enabled simultaneously to sample a complete frame andacquire signals representing measurements of one or more analytes inproximity to respective ISFETs of the array. In some applications, thismay provide for higher data acquisition speeds and/or improved signalsensitivity (e.g., higher signal-to-noise ratio).

FIG. 25 illustrates one such alternative design for a single pixel 105Cand associated column circuitry 110 j. The pixel 105C employs ann-channel ISFET and is based generally on the premise of providing aconstant voltage across the ISFET Q1 based on a feedback amplifier (Q4,Q5 and Q6). In particular, transistor Q4 constitutes the feedbackamplifier load, and the amplifier current is set by the bias voltage VB1(provided by the array controller). Transistor Q5 is a common gateamplifier and transistor Q6 is a common source amplifier. Again, thepurpose of feedback amplifier is to hold the voltage across the ISFET Q1constant by adjusting the current supplied by transistor Q3. TransistorQ2 limits the maximum current the ISFET Q1 can draw (e.g., so as toprevent damage from overheating a very large array of pixels). Thismaximum current is set by the bias voltage VB2 (also provided by thearray controller). In one aspect of the pixel design shown in FIG. 25,power to the pixel 105C may be turned off by setting the bias voltageVB2 to 0 Volts and the bias voltage VB1 to 3.3 Volts. In this manner,the power supplied to large arrays of such pixels may be modulated(turned on for a short time period and then off by the array controller)to obtain ion concentration measurements while at the same time reducingoverall power consumption of the array. Modulating power to the pixelsalso reduces heat dissipation of the array and potential heating of theanalyte solution, thereby also reducing any potentially deleteriouseffects from sample heating.

In FIG. 25, the output of the feedback amplifier (the gate of transistorQ3) is sampled by MOS switch Q7 and stored on a pixel sample and holdcapacitor Csh within the pixel itself. The switch Q7 is controlled by apixel sample and hold signal pSH (provided to the array chip by thearray controller), which is applied simultaneously to all pixels of thearray so as to simultaneously store the readings of all the pixels ontheir respective sample and hold capacitors. In this manner, arraysbased on the pixel design of FIG. 25 may be considered as “snapshot”arrays, in that a full frame of data is sampled at any given time,rather than sampling successive rows of the array. After each pixelvalue is stored on the corresponding pixel sample and hold capacitorCsh, each pixel 105C (ISFET and feedback amplifier) is free to acquireanother pH reading or it can by turned off to conserve power.

In FIG. 25, the pixel values stored on all of the pixel sample and holdcapacitors Csh are applied to the column circuitry 110 j one row at atime through source follower Q8, which is enabled via the transistor Q9in response to a row select signal (e.g., RowSel1). In particular, aftera row is selected and has settled out, the values stored in the pixelsample and hold capacitors are then in turn stored on the column sampleand hold capacitors Csh2, as enabled by the column sample and holdsignal COL SH, and provided as the column output signal V_(COLj).

FIG. 26 illustrates another alternative design for a single pixel 105Dand associated column circuitry 110 j, according to one embodiment ofthe present disclosure. In this embodiment, the ISFET is shown as ap-channel device. At the start of a data acquisition cycle, CMOSswitches controlled by the signals pSH (pixel sample/hold) and pRST(pixel reset) are closed (these signals are supplied by the arraycontroller). This pulls the source of ISFET (Q1) to the voltage VRST.Subsequently, the switch controlled by the signal pRST is opened, andthe source of ISFET Q1 pulls the pixel sample and hold capacitor Csh toa threshold below the level set by pH. The switch controlled by thesignal pSH is then opened, and the pixel output value is coupled, viaoperation of a switch responsive to the row select signal RowSel1, tothe column circuitry 110 j to provide the column output signal V_(COLj).Like the pixel design in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 25, arraysbased on the pixel 105D are “snapshot” type arrays in that all pixels ofthe array may be operated simultaneously. In one aspect, this designallows a long simultaneous integration time on all pixels followed by ahigh-speed read out of an entire frame of data.

FIG. 27 illustrates yet another alternative design for a single pixel105E and associated column circuitry 110 j, according to one embodimentof the present disclosure. In this embodiment, again the ISFET is shownas a p-channel device. At the start of a data acquisition cycle, theswitches operated by the control signals p1 and pRST are briefly closed.This clears the value stored on the sampling capacitor Csh and allows acharge to be stored on ISFET (Q1). Subsequently, the switch controlledby the signal pSH is closed, allowing the charge stored on the ISFET Q1to be stored on the pixel sample and hold capacitor Csh. The switchcontrolled by the signal pSH is then opened, and the pixel output valueis coupled, via operation of a switch responsive to the row selectsignal RowSel1, to the column circuitry 110 j to provide the columnoutput signal V_(COLj). Gain may be provided in the pixel 105E via theratio of the ISFET capacitance to the Csh cap, i.e., gain=C_(Q1)/C_(sh),or by enabling the pixel multiple times (i.e., taking multiple samplesof the analyte measurement) and accumulating the ISFET output on thepixel sample and hold capacitor Csh without resetting the capacitor(i.e., gain is a function of the number of accumulations). Like theembodiments of FIGS. 25 and 26, arrays based on the pixel 105D are“snapshot” type arrays in that all pixels of the array may be operatedsimultaneously.

Turning from the sensor discussion, we will now be addressing thecombining of the ISFET array with a microwell array and the attendantfluidics. As most of the drawings of the microwell array structure arepresented only in cross-section or showing that array as only a block ina simplified diagram, FIGS. 28A and 28B are provided to assist thereader in beginning to visualize the resulting apparatus inthree-dimensions. FIG. 28A shows a group of round cylindrical wells 2810arranged in an array, while FIG. 28B shows a group of rectangularcylindrical wells 2830 arranged in an array. It will be seen that thewells are separated (isolated) from each other by the material 2840forming the well walls. While it is certainly possible to fabricatewells of other cross sections, in some embodiments it may not beadvantageous to do so. Such an array of microwells sits over theabove-discussed ISFET array, with one or more ISFETs per well. In thesubsequent drawings, when the microwell array is identified, one maypicture one of these arrays.

Fluidic System: Apparatus and Method for Use with High DensityElectronic Sensor Arrays

For many uses, to complete a system for sensing chemical reactions orchemical agents using the above-explained high density electronicarrays, techniques and apparatus are required for delivery to the arrayelements (called “pixels”) fluids containing chemical or biochemicalcomponents for sensing. In this section, exemplary techniques andmethods will be illustrated, which are useful for such purposes, withdesirable characteristics.

As high speed operation of the system may be desired, it is preferredthat the fluid delivery system, insofar as possible, not limit the speedof operation of the overall system.

Accordingly, needs exist not only for high-speed, high-density arrays ofISFETs or other elements sensitive to ion concentrations or otherchemical attributes, or changes in chemical attributes, but also forrelated mechanisms and techniques for supplying to the array elementsthe samples to be evaluated, in sufficiently small reaction volumes asto substantially advance the speed and quality of detection of thevariable to be sensed.

There are two and sometimes three components or subsystems, and relatedmethods, involved in delivery of the subject chemical samples to thearray elements: (1) macrofluidic system of reagent and wash fluidsupplies and appropriate valving and ancillary apparatus, (2) a flowcell and (3) in many applications, a microwell array. Each of thesesubsystems will be discussed, though in reverse order.

Microwell Array

As discussed elsewhere, for many uses, such as in DNA sequencing, it isdesirable to provide over the array of semiconductor sensors acorresponding array of microwells, each microwell being small enoughpreferably to receive only one DNA-loaded bead, in connection with whichan underlying pixel in the array will provide a corresponding outputsignal.

The use of such a microwell array involves three stages of fabricationand preparation, each of which is discussed separately: (1) creating thearray of microwells to result in a chip having a coat comprising amicrowell array layer; (2) mounting of the coated chip to a fluidicinterface; and in the case of DNA sequencing, (3) loading DNA-loadedbead or beads into the wells. It will be understood, of course, that inother applications, beads may be unnecessary or beads having differentcharacteristics may be employed.

The systems described herein can include an array of microfluidicreaction chambers integrated with a semiconductor comprising an array ofchemFETs. In some embodiments, the invention encompasses such an array.The reaction chambers may, for example, be formed in a glass,dielectric, photodefineable or etchable material. The glass material maybe silicon dioxide.

Preferably, the array comprises at least 100,000 chambers. Preferably,each reaction chamber has a horizontal width and a vertical depth thathas an aspect ratio of about 1:1 or less. Preferably, the pitch betweenthe reaction chambers is no more than about 10 microns.

The above-described array can also be provided in a kit for sequencing.Thus, in some embodiments, the invention encompasses a kit comprising anarray of microfluidic reaction chambers integrated with an array ofchemFETs, and one or more amplification reagents.

In some embodiments, the invention encompasses a sequencing apparatuscomprising a dielectric layer overlying a chemFET, the dielectric layerhaving a recess laterally centered atop the chemFET. Preferably, thedielectric layer is formed of silicon dioxide.

Microwell Array Fabrication

Microwell fabrication may be accomplished in a number of ways. Theactual details of fabrication may require some experimentation and varywith the processing capabilities that are available.

In general, fabrication of a high density array of microwells involvesphoto-lithographically patterning the well array configuration on alayer or layers of material such as photoresist (organic or inorganic),a dielectric, using an etching process. The patterning may be done withthe material on the sensor array or it may be done separately and thentransferred onto the sensor array chip, of some combination of the two.However, techniques other than photolithography are not to be excludedif they provide acceptable results.

One example of a method for forming a microwell array is now discussed,starting with reference to FIG. 29. That figure diagrammatically depictsa top view of one corner (i.e., the lower left corner) of the layout ofa chip showing an array 2910 of the individual ISFET sensors 2912 on theCMOS die 2914. Signal lines 2916 and 2918 are used for addressing thearray and reading its output. Block 2920 represents some of theelectronics for the array, as discussed above, and layer 2922 representsa portion of a wall which becomes part of a microfluidics structure, theflow cell, as more fully explained below; the flow cell is thatstructure which provides a fluid flow over the microwell array or overthe sensor surface directly, if there is no microwell structure. On thesurface of the die, a pattern such as pattern 2922 at the bottom left ofFIG. 29 may be formed during the semiconductor processing to form theISFETs and associated circuitry, for use as alignment marks for locatingthe wells over the sensor pixels when the dielectric has covered thedie's surface.

After the semiconductor structures, as shown, are formed, the microwellstructure is applied to the die. That is, the microwell structure can beformed right on the die or it may be formed separately and then mountedonto the die, either approach being acceptable. To form the microwellstructure on the die, various processes may be used. For example, theentire die may be spin-coated with, for example, a negative photoresistsuch as Microchem's SU-8 2015 or a positive resist/polyimide such as HDMicrosystems HD8820, to the desired height of the microwells. Thedesired height of the wells (e.g., about 4-12 μm in the example of onepixel per well, though not so limited as a general matter) in thephotoresist layer(s) can be achieved by spinning the appropriate resistat predetermined rates (which can be found by reference to theliterature and manufacturer specifications, or empirically), in one ormore layers. (Well height typically may be selected in correspondencewith the lateral dimension of the sensor pixel, preferably for a nominal1:1-1.5:1 aspect ratio, height:width or diameter. Based onsignal-to-noise considerations, there is a relationship betweendimensions and the required data sampling rates to achieve a desiredlevel of performance. Thus there are a number of factors that will gointo selecting optimum parameters for a given application.)Alternatively, multiple layers of different photoresists may be appliedor another form of dielectric material may be deposited. Various typesof chemical vapor deposition may also be used to build up a layer ofmaterials suitable for microwell formation therein.

Once the photoresist layer (the singular form “layer” is used toencompass multiple layers in the aggregate, as well) is in place, theindividual wells (typically mapped to have either one or four ISFETsensors per well) may be generated by placing a mask (e.g., of chromium)over the resist-coated die and exposing the resist to cross-linking(typically UV) radiation. All resist exposed to the radiation (i.e.,where the mask does not block the radiation) becomes cross-linked and asa result will form a permanent plastic layer bonded to the surface ofthe chip (die). Unreacted resist (i.e., resist in areas which are notexposed, due to the mask blocking the light from reaching the resist andpreventing cross-linking) is removed by washing the chip in a suitablesolvent (i.e., developer) such as propyleneglycolmethylethylacetate(PGMEA) or other appropriate solvent. The resultant structure definesthe walls of the microwell array.

FIG. 30 shows an example of a layout for a portion of a chromium mask3010 for a one-sensor-per-well embodiment, corresponding to the portionof the die shown in FIG. 29. The grayed areas 3012, 3014 are those thatblock the UV radiation. The alignment marks in the white portions 3016on the bottom left quadrant of FIG. 30, within gray area 3012, are usedto align the layout of the wells with the ISFET sensors on the chipsurface. The array of circles 3014 in the upper right quadrant of themask block radiation from reaching the well areas, to leave unreactedresist which can be dissolved in forming the wells.

FIG. 31 shows a corresponding layout for the mask 3020 for a4-sensors-per-well embodiment. Note that the alignment pattern 3016 isstill used and that the individual well-masking circles 3014A in thearray 2910 now have twice the diameter as the wells 3014 in FIG. 30, foraccommodating four sensors per well instead of one sensor-per-well.

After exposure of the die/resist to the UV radiation, a second layer ofresist may be coated on the surface of the chip. This layer of resistmay be relatively thick, such as about 400-450 μm thick, typically. Asecond mask 3210 (FIG. 32), which also may be of chromium, is used tomask an area 3220 which surrounds the array, to build a collar or wall(or basin, using that term in the geological sense) 3310 of resist whichsurrounds the active array of sensors on substrate 3312, as shown inFIG. 33. In the particular example being described, the collar is 150 μmwider than the sensor array, on each side of the array, in the xdirection, and 9 μm wider on each side than the sensor array, in the ydirection. Alignment marks on mask 3210 (most not shown) are matched upwith the alignment marks on the first layer and the CMOS chip itself.

Other photolithographic approaches may be used for formation of themicrowell array, of course, the foregoing being only one example.

For example, contact lithography of various resolutions and with variousetchants and developers may be employed. Both organic and inorganicmaterials may be used for the layer(s) in which the microwells areformed. The layer(s) may be etched on a chip having a dielectric layerover the pixel structures in the sensor array, such as a passivationlayer, or the layer(s) may be formed separately and then applied overthe sensor array. The specific choice or processes will depend onfactors such as array size, well size, the fabrication facility that isavailable, acceptable costs, and the like.

Among the various organic materials which may be used in someembodiments to form the microwell layer(s) are the above-mentioned SU-8type of negative-acting photoresist, a conventional positive-actingphotoresist and a positive-acting photodefineable polyimide. Each hasits virtues and its drawbacks, well known to those familiar with thephotolithographic art.

Naturally, in a production environment, modifications will beappropriate.

Contact lithography has its limitations and it may not be the productionmethod of choice to produce the highest densities of wells—i.e., it mayimpose a higher than desired minimum pitch limit in the lateraldirections. Other techniques, such as a deep UV step-and-repeat process,are capable of providing higher resolution lithography and can be usedto produce small pitches and possibly smaller well diameters. Of course,for different desired specifications (e.g., numbers of sensors and wellsper chip), different techniques may prove optimal. And pragmaticfactors, such as the fabrication processes available to a manufacturer,may motivate the use of a specific fabrication method. While novelmethods are discussed, various aspects of the invention are limited touse of these novel methods.

Preferably the CMOS wafer with the ISFET array will be planarized afterthe final metallization process. A chemical mechanical dielectricplanarization prior to the silicon nitride passivation is suitable. Thiswill allow subsequent lithographic steps to be done on very flatsurfaces which are free of back-end CMOS topography.

By utilizing deep-UV step-and-repeat lithography systems, it is possibleto resolve small features with superior resolution, registration, andrepeatability. However, the high resolution and large numerical aperture(NA) of these systems precludes their having a large depth of focus. Assuch, it may be necessary, when using such a fabrication system, to usethinner photodefinable spin-on layers (i.e., resists on the order of 1-2μm rather than the thicker layers used in contact lithography) topattern transfer and then etch microwell features to underlying layer orlayers. High resolution lithography can then be used to pattern themicrowell features and conventional SiO₂ etch chemistries can beused—one each for the bondpad areas and then the microwell areas—havingselective etch stops; the etch stops then can be on aluminum bondpadsand silicon nitride passivation (or the like), respectively.Alternatively, other suitable substitute pattern transfer and etchprocesses can be employed to render microwells of inorganic materials.

Another approach is to form the microwell structure in an organicmaterial. For example, a dual-resist “soft-mask” process may beemployed, whereby a thin high-resolution deep-UV resist is used on topof a thicker organic material (e.g., cured polyimide or opposite-actingresist). The top resist layer is patterned. The pattern can betransferred using an oxygen plasma reactive ion etch process. Thisprocess sequence is sometimes referred to as the “portable conformablemask” (PCM) technique. See B. J. Lin et al., “Practicing the Novolacdeep-UV portable conformable masking technique”, Journal of VacuumScience and Technology 19, No. 4, 1313-1319 (1981); and A. Cooper et al,“Optimization of a photosensitive spin-on dielectric process for copperinductor coil and interconnect protection in RF SoC devices.”

Alternatively a “drill-focusing” technique may be employed, wherebyseveral sequential step-and-repeat exposures are done at different focaldepths to compensate for the limited depth of focus (DOF) ofhigh-resolution steppers when patterning thick resist layers. Thistechnique depends on the stepper NA and DOF as well as the contrastproperties of the resist material.

Another PCM technique may be adapted to these purposes, such as thatshown in U.S. patent application publication no. 2006/0073422 by Edwardset al. This is a three-layer PCM process and it is illustrated in FIG.33A. As shown there, basically six major steps are required to producethe microwell array and the result is quite similar to what contactlithography would yield.

In a first step, 3320, a layer of high contrast negative-actingphotoresist such as type Shipley InterVia Photodielectric Material 8021(IV8021) 3322 is spun on the surface of a wafer, which we shall assumeto be the wafer providing the substrate 3312 of FIG. 33 (in which thesensor array is fabricated), and a soft bake operation is performed.Next, in step 3324, a blocking anti-reflective coating (BARC) layer3326, is applied and soft baked. On top of this structure, a thin resistlayer 3328 is spun on and soft baked, step 3330, the thin layer ofresist being suitable for fine feature definition. The resist layer 3328is then patterned, exposed and developed, and the BARC in the exposedregions 3329, not protected any longer by the resist 3328, is removed,Step 3332. This opens up regions 3329 down to the uncured IV8021 layer.The BARC layer can now act like a conformal contact mask A blanketexposure with a flooding exposure tool, Step 3334, cross-links theexposed IV8021, which is now shown as distinct from the uncured IV8021at 3322. One or more developer steps 3338 are then performed, removingeverything but the cross-linked IV8021 in regions 3336. Regions 3336 nowconstitute the walls of the microwells.

Although as shown above, the wells bottom out (i.e. terminate) on thetop passivation layer of the ISFETs, it is believed that an improvementin ISFET sensor performance (i.e. such as signal-to-noise ratio) can beobtained if the active bead(s) is(are) kept slightly elevated from theISFET passivation layer. One way to do so is to place a spacer “bump”within the boundary of the pixel microwell. An example of how this couldbe rendered would be not etching away a portion of the layer-or -layersused to form the microwell structure (i.e. two lithographic steps toform the microwells—one to etch part way done, the other to pattern thebump and finish the etch to bottom out), by depositing andlithographically defining and etching a separate layer to form the“bump”, by using a permanent photo-definable material for the bump oncethe microwells are complete, or by forming the bump prior to forming themicrowell. The bump feature is shown as 3350 in FIG. 33B. An alternative(or additional) non-integrated approach is to load the wells with alayer or two of very small packing beads before loading the DNA-bearingbeads.

Using a 6 um (micron) thick layer of tetra-methyl-ortho-silicate (TEOS)as a SiO₂-like layer for microwell formation, FIG. 33B-1 shows ascanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a cross-section of a portion3300A of an array architecture as taught herein. Microwells 3302A areformed in the TEOS layer 3304A. The wells extend about 4 um into the 6um thick layer. Typically, the etched well bottoms on an etch-stopmaterial which may be, for example, an oxide, an organic material orother suitable material known in semiconductor processing foretch-stopping use. A thin layer of etch stop material may be formed ontop of a thicker layer of polyimide or other suitable dielectric, suchthat there is about 2 um of etch stop+polyimide between the well bottomand the Metal4 (M4) layer of the chip in which the extended gateelectrode 3308A is formed for each underlying ISFET in the array. Aslabeled on the side, the CMOS metallization layers M3, M2 and M1, whichform lower level interconnects and structures, are shown, with the ISFETchannels being formed in the areas indicated by arrows 3310A.

In the orthogonal cross-sectional view (i.e., looking down from thetop), the wells may be formed in either round or square shape. Roundwells may improve bead capture and may obviate the need for packingbeads at the bottom or top of the wells.

The tapered slopes to the sides of the microwells also may be used toadvantage. Referring to FIG. 33B-2, if the beads 3320A have a diameterlarger than the bottom span across the wells, but small enough to fitinto the mouths of the wells, the beads will be spaced off the bottom ofthe wells due to the geometric constraints. For example, FIG. 33B-2illustrates the example of microwells that are square in cross-sectionas viewed from the top, 4 um on a side, with 3.8 um diameter beads 3320Aloaded. Experimentally and with some calculation, one may determinesuitable bead size and well dimension combinations. FIG. 33B-3 shows aportion of one 4 um well loaded with a 2.8 um diameter bead 3322A, whichobviously is relatively small and falls all the way to the bottom of thewell; a 4.0 um diameter bead 3324A which is stopped from reaching thebottom by the sidewall taper of the well; and an intermediate-sized bead3326A of 3.6 um diameter which is spaced from the well bottom by packingbeads 3328A. Clearly, bead size has to be carefully matched to themicrowell etch taper.

Thus, microwells can be fabricated by any high aspect ratiophoto-definable or etchable thin-film process, that can providerequisite thickness (e.g., about 4-10 um). Among the materials believedto be suitable are photosensitive polymers, deposited silicon dioxide,non-photosensitive polymer which can be etched using, for example,plasma etching processes, etc. In the silicon dioxide family, TEOS andsilane nitrous oxide (SILOX) appear suitable. The final structures aresimilar but the various materials present differing surface compositionsthat may cause the target biology or chemistry to react differently.

When the microwell layer is formed, it may be necessary to provide anetch stop layer so that the etching process does not proceed furtherthan desired. For example, there may be an underlying layer to bepreserved, such as a low-K dielectric. The etch stop material should beselected according to the application. SiC and SiN materials may besuitable, but that is not meant to indicate that other materials may notbe employed, instead. These etch-stop materials can also serve toenhance the surface chemistry which drives the ISFET sensor sensitivity,by choosing the etch-stop material to have an appropriate point of zerocharge (PZC). Various metal oxides may be suitable addition to silicondioxide and silicon nitride.

The PZCs for various metal oxides may be found in various texts, such as“Metal Oxides—Chemistry and Applications” by J. Fierro. We have learnedthat Ta₂O₅ may be preferred as an etch stop over Al₂O₃ because the PZCof Al₂O₃ is right at the pH being used (i.e., about 8.8) and, hence,right at the point of zero charge. In addition Ta₂O₅ has a highersensitivity to pH (i.e., mV/pH), another important factor in the sensorperformance. Optimizing these parameters may require judicious selectionof passivation surface materials.

Using thin metal oxide materials for this purpose (i.e., as an etch stoplayer) is difficult due to the fact of their being so thinly deposited(typically 200-500 A). A post-microwell fabrication metal oxidedeposition technique may allow placement of appropriate PZC metal oxidefilms at the bottom of the high aspect ratio microwells.

Electron-beam depositions of (a) reactively sputtered tantalum oxide,(b) non-reactive stoichiometric tantalum oxide, (c) tungsten oxide, or(d) Vanadium oxide may prove to have superior “down-in-well” coveragedue to the superior directionality of the deposition process.

The array may typically comprise 100 microfluidic wells (i.e., it has aminimum of 100 microfluidic wells although it may have more), each ofwhich is coupled to one or more chemFET sensors. Preferably, the wellsare formed in at least one of a glass (e.g., SiO₂), a polymericmaterial, a photodefinable material or a reactively ion etchable thinfilm material. Preferably, the wells have a width to height ratio lessthan about 1:1. Preferably the sensor is a field effect transistor, andmore preferably a chemFET. The chemFET may optionally be coupled to aPPi receptor. Preferably, each of the chemFETs occupies an area of thearray that is 10² microns or less.

In some embodiments, the invention encompasses a sequencing devicecomprising a semiconductor wafer device coupled to a dielectric layersuch as a glass (e.g., SiO₂), polymeric, photodefinable or reactive ionetchable material in which reaction chambers are formed. Typically, theglass, dielectric, polymeric, photodefinable or reactive ion etchablematerial is integrated with the semiconductor wafer layer. In someinstances, the glass, polymeric, photodefinable or reactive ion etchablelayer is non-crystalline. In some instances, the glass may be SiO₂. Thedevice can optionally further comprise a fluid delivery module of asuitable material such as a polymeric material, preferably an injectionmoldable material. More preferably, the polymeric layer ispolycarbonate.

In some embodiments, the invention encompasses a method formanufacturing a sequencing device comprising: using photolithography,generating wells in a glass, dielectric, photodefinable or reactivelyion etchable material on top of an array of transistors.

Mounting the Flow Cell (Fluidic Interface) to the Sensor Chip

The process of using the assembly of an array of sensors on a chipcombined with an array of microwells to sequence the DNA in a sample isreferred to as an “experiment.” Executing an experiment requires loadingthe wells with the DNA-bound beads and the flowing of several differentfluid solutions (i.e., reagents and washes) across the wells. A fluiddelivery system (e.g., valves, conduits, pressure source(s), etc.)coupled with a fluidic interface is needed which flows the varioussolutions across the wells in a controlled even flow with acceptablysmall dead volumes and small cross contamination between sequentialsolutions. Ideally, the fluidic interface to the chip (sometimesreferred to as a “flow cell”) would cause the fluid to reach allmicrowells at the same time. To maximize array speed, it is necessarythat the array outputs be available at as close to the same time aspossible. The ideal clearly is not possible, but it is desirable tominimize the differentials, or skews, of the arrival times of anintroduced fluid, at the various wells, in order to maximize the overallspeed of acquisition of all the signals from the array.

Flow cell designs of many configurations are possible; thus the systemand methods presented herein are not dependent on use of a specific flowcell configuration. It is desirable, though, that a suitable flow cellsubstantially conform to the following set of objectives:

-   -   have connections suitable for interconnecting with a fluidics        delivery system—e.g., via appropriately-sized tubing;    -   have appropriate head space above wells;    -   minimize dead volumes encountered by fluids;    -   minimize small spaces in contact with liquid but not quickly        swept clean by flow of a wash fluid through the flow cell (to        minimize cross contamination);    -   be configured to achieve uniform transit time of the flow over        the array;    -   generate or propagate minimal bubbles in the flow over the        wells;    -   be adaptable to placement of a removable reference electrode        inside or as close to the flow chamber as possible;    -   facilitate easy loading of beads;    -   be manufacturable at acceptable cost; and    -   be easily assembled and attached to the chip package.    -   Satisfaction of these criteria so far as possible will        contribute to system performance positively. For example,        minimization of bubbles is important so that signals from the        array truly indicate the reaction in a well rather than being        spurious noise.

Each of several example designs will be discussed, meeting thesecriteria in differing ways and degrees. In each instance, one typicallymay choose to implement the design in one of two ways: either byattaching the flow cell to a frame and gluing the frame (or otherwiseattaching it) to the chip or by integrating the frame into the flow cellstructure and attaching this unified assembly to the chip. Further,designs may be categorized by the way the reference electrode isintegrated into the arrangement. Depending on the design, the referenceelectrode may be integrated into the flow cell (e.g., form part of theceiling of the flow chamber) or be in the flow path (typically to theoutlet or downstream side of the flow path, after the sensor array).

A first example of a suitable experiment apparatus 3410 incorporatingsuch a fluidic interface is shown in FIGS. 34-37, the manufacture andconstruction of which will be discussed in greater detail below.

The apparatus comprises a semiconductor chip 3412 (indicated generally,though hidden) on or in which the arrays of wells and sensors areformed, and a fluidics assembly 3414 on top of the chip and deliveringthe sample to the chip for reading. The fluidics assembly includes aportion 3416 for introducing fluid containing the sample, a portion 3418for allowing the fluid to be piped out, and a flow chamber portion 3420for allowing the fluid to flow from inlet to outlet and along the wayinteract with the material in the wells. Those three portions areunified by an interface comprising a glass slide 3422 (e.g., ErieMicroarray Cat #C22-5128-M20 from Erie Scientific Company, Portsmouth,N.H., cut in thirds, each to be of size about 25 mm×25 mm).

Mounted on the top face of the glass slide are two fittings, 3424 and3426, such as nanoport fittings Part # N-333 from Upchurch Scientific ofOak Harbor, Wash. One port (e.g., 3424) serves as an inlet deliveringliquids from the pumping/valving system described below but not shownhere. The second port (e.g., 3426) is the outlet which pipes the liquidsto waste. Each port connects to a conduit 3428, 3432 such as flexibletubing of appropriate inner diameter. The nanoports are mounted suchthat the tubing can penetrate corresponding holes in the glass slide.The tube apertures should be flush with the bottom surface of the slide.

On the bottom of the glass slide, flow chamber 3420 may comprise variousstructures for promoting a substantially laminar flow across themicrowell array. For example, a series of microfluidic channels fanningout from the inlet pipe to the edge of the flow chamber may be patternedby contact lithography using positive photoresists such as SU-8photoresist from MicroChem. Corp. of Newton, Mass. Other structures willbe discussed below.

The chip 3412 will in turn be mounted to a carrier 3430, for packagingand connection to connector pins 3432.

For ease of description, to discuss fabrication starting with FIG. 38 weshall now consider the glass slide 3422 to be turned upside downrelative to the orientation it has in FIGS. 34-37.

A layer of photoresist 3810 is applied to the “top” of the slide (whichwill become the “bottom” side when the slide and its additional layersis turned over and mounted to the sensor assembly of ISFET array withmicrowell array on it). Layer 3810 may be about 150 μm thick in thisexample, and it will form the primary fluid carrying layer from the endof the tubing in the nanoports to the edge of the sensor array chip.Layer 3810 is patterned using a mask such as the mask 3910 of FIG. 39(“patterned” meaning that a radiation source is used to expose theresist through the mask and then the non-plasticized resist is removed).The mask 3910 has radiation-transparent regions which are shown as whiteand radiation-blocking regions 3920, which are shown in shading. Theradiation-blocking regions are at 3922-3928. The region 3926 will form achannel around the sensor assembly; it is formed about 0.5 mm inside theouter boundary of the mask 3920, to avoid the edge bead that is typical.The regions 3922 and 3924 will block radiation so that correspondingportions of the resist are removed to form voids shaped as shown. Eachof regions 3922, 3924 has a rounded end dimensioned to receive an end ofa corresponding one of the tubes 3428, 3432 passing through acorresponding nanoport 3424, 3426. From the rounded end, the regions3922, 3924 fan out in the direction of the sensor array to allow theliquid to spread so that the flow across the array will be substantiallylaminar. The region 3928 is simply an alignment pattern and may be anysuitable alignment pattern or be replaced by a suitable substitutealignment mechanism. Dashed lines on FIG. 38 have been provided toillustrate the formation of the voids 3822 and 3824 under mask regions3922 and 3924.

A second layer of photoresist is formed quite separately, not on theresist 3810 or slide 3422. Preferably it is formed on a flat, flexiblesurface (not shown), to create a peel-off, patterned plastic layer. Asshown in FIG. 40, this second layer of photoresist may be formed using amask such as mask 4010, which will leave on the flexible substrate,after patterning, the border under region 4012, two slits under regions4014, 4016, whose use will be discussed below, and alignment marksproduced by patterned regions 4018 and 4022. The second layer ofphotoresist is then applied to the first layer of photoresist using onealignment mark or set of alignment marks, let's say produced by pattern4018, for alignment of these layers. Then the second layer is peeledfrom its flexible substrate and the latter is removed.

The other alignment mark or set of marks produced by pattern 4022 isused for alignment with a subsequent layer to be discussed.

The second layer is preferably about 150 μm deep and it will cover thefluid-carrying channel with the exception of a slit about 150 μm long ateach respective edge of the sensor array chip, under slit-formingregions 4014 and 4016.

Once the second layer of photoresist is disposed on the first layer, athird patterned layer of photoresist is formed over the second layer,using a mask such as mask 4110, shown in FIG. 41. The third layerprovides a baffle member under region 4112 which is as wide as thecollar 3310 on the sensor chip array (see FIG. 33) but about 300 μmnarrower to allow overlap with the fluid-carrying channel of the firstlayer. The third layer may be about 150 μm thick and will penetrate thechip collar 3310, toward the floor of the basin formed thereby, by 150μm. This configuration will leave a headspace of about 300 μm above thewells on the sensor array chip. The liquids are flowed across the wellsalong the entire width of the sensor array through the 150 μm slitsunder 4014, 4016.

FIG. 36 shows a partial sectional view, in perspective, of theabove-described example embodiment of a microfluidics and sensorassembly, also depicted in FIGS. 34 and 35, enlarged to make morevisible the fluid flow path. (A further enlarged schematic of half ofthe flow path is shown in FIG. 37.) Here, it will be seen that fluidenters via the inlet pipe 3428 in inlet port 3424. At the bottom of pipe3428, the fluid flows through the flow expansion chamber 3610 formed bymask area 3922, that the fluid flows over the collar 3310 and then downinto the bottom 3320 of the basin, and across the die 3412 with itsmicrowell array. After passing over the array, the fluid then takes avertical turn at the far wall of the collar 3310 and flows over the topof the collar to and across the flow concentration chamber 3612 formedby mask area 3924, exiting via outlet pipe 3432 in outlet port 3426.Part of this flow, from the middle of the array to the outlet, may beseen also in the enlarged diagrammatic illustration of FIG. 37, whereinthe arrows indicate the flow of the fluid.

The fluidics assembly may be secured to the sensor array chip assemblyby applying an adhesive to parts of mating surfaces of those twoassemblies, and pressing them together, in alignment.

Though not illustrated in FIGS. 34-36, the reference electrode may beunderstood to be a metallization 3710, as shown in FIG. 37, at theceiling of the flow chamber.

Another way to introduce the reference electrode is shown in FIG. 42.There, a hole 4210 is provided in the ceiling of the flow chamber and agrommet 4212 (e.g., of silicone) is fitted into that hole, providing acentral passage or bore through which a reference electrode 4220 may beinserted. Baffles or other microfeatures (not shown in FIG. 42 butdiscussed below in connection with FIG. 42A) may be patterned into theflow channel to promote laminar flow over the microwell array.

Achieving a uniform flow front and eliminating problematic flow pathareas is desirable for a number of reasons. One reason is that very fasttransition of fluid interfaces within the system's flow cell is desiredfor many applications, particularly gene sequencing. In other words, anincoming fluid must completely displace the previous fluid in a shortperiod of time. Uneven fluid velocities and diffusion within the flowcell, as well as problematic flow paths, can compete with thisrequirement. Simple flow through a conduit of rectangular cross sectioncan exhibit considerable disparity of fluid velocity from regions nearthe center of the flow volume to those adjacent the sidewalls, onesidewall being the top surface of the microwell layer and the fluid inthe wells. Such disparity leads to spatially and temporally largeconcentration gradients between the two traveling fluids. Further,bubbles are likely to be trapped or created in stagnant areas like sharpcorners interior the flow cell. (The surface energy (hydrophilic vs.hydrophobic) can significantly affect bubble retention. Avoidance ofsurface contamination during processing and use of a surface treatmentto create a more hydrophilic surface should be considered if theas-molded surface is too hydrophobic.) Of course, the physicalarrangement of the flow chamber is probably the factor which mostinfluences the degree of uniformity achievable for the flow front.

One approach is to configure the flow cross section of the flow chamberto achieve flow rates that vary across the array width so that thetransit times are uniform across the array. For example, the crosssection of the diffuser (i.e., flow expansion chamber) section 3416,3610 may be made as shown at 4204A in FIG. 42A, instead of simply beingrectangular, as at 4204A. That is, it may have a curved (e.g., concave)wall. The non-flat wall 4206A of the diffuser can be the top or thebottom. Another approach is to configure the effective path lengths intothe array so that the total path lengths from entrance to exit over thearray are essentially the same. This may be achieved, for example, byplacing flow-disrupting features such as cylinders or other structuresoriented normal to the flow direction, in the path of the flow. If theflow chamber has as a floor the top of the microwell array and as aceiling an opposing wall, these flow-disrupting structures may beprovided either on the top of the microwell layer or on (or in) theceiling wall. The structures must project sufficiently into the flow tohave the desired effect, but even small flow disturbances can havesignificant impact. Turning to FIGS. 42B-42F, there are showndiagrammatically some examples of such structures. In FIG. 42B, on thesurface of microwell layer 4210B there are formed a series ofcylindrical flow disruptors 4214B extending vertically toward the flowchamber ceiling wall 4212B, and serving to disturb laminar flow for thefluid moving in the direction of arrow A. FIG. 42C depicts a similararrangement except that the flow disruptors 4216C have rounded tops andappear more like bumps, perhaps hemispheres or cylinders with sphericaltops. By contrast, in FIG. 42D, the flow disruptors 4218D protrude, ordepend, from the ceiling wall 4212B of the flow chamber. Only one columnof flow disruptors is shown but it will be appreciated that a pluralityof more or less parallel columns typically would be required. Forexample, FIG. 42E shows several columns 4202E of such flow disruptors(projecting outwardly from ceiling wall 4212B (though the orientation isupside down relative to FIGS. 42B-42D). The spacing between thedisruptors and their heights may be selected to influence the distanceover which the flow profile becomes parabolic, so that transit timeequilibrates.

Another configuration, shown in FIGS. 42F and 42F1, involves the use ofsolid, beam-like projections or baffles 4220F as disruptors. Thisconcept may be used to form a ceiling member for the flow chamber. Suchan arrangement encourages more even fluid flow and significantly reducesfluid displacement times as compared with a simple rectangularcross-section without disruptor structure. Further, instead of fluidentry to the array occurring along one edge, fluid may be introduced atone corner 4242F, through a small port, and may exit from the oppositecorner, 4244F, via a port in fluid communication with that corner area.The series of parallel baffles 4220F separates the flow volume betweeninput and outlet corners into a series of channels. The lowest fluidresistant path is along the edge of the chip, perpendicular to thebaffles. As incoming liquid fills this channel, the fluid is thendirected between the baffles to the opposite side of the chip. Thechannel depth between each baffle pair preferably is graded across thechip, such that the flow is encouraged to travel toward the exit portthrough the farthest channel, thereby evening the flow front between thebaffles. The baffles extend downwardly nearly to the chip (i.e.,microwell layer) surface, but because they are quite thin, fluid candiffuse under them quickly and expose the associated area of the arrayassembly.

FIGS. 42F2-42F8 illustrate an example of a single-piece,injection-molded (preferably of polycarbonate) flow cell member 42F200which may be used to provide baffles 4220F, a ceiling to the flowchamber, fluid inlet and outlet ports and even the reference electrode.FIG. 42F7 shows an enlarged view of the baffles on the bottom of member42F200 and the baffles are shown as part of the underside of member42F200 in FIG. 42F6. As it is difficult to form rectangular features insmall dimensions by injection molding, the particular instance of thesebaffles, shown as 4220F′, are triangular in cross section.

In FIG. 42F2, there is a top, isometric view of member 42F200 mountedonto a sensor array package 42F300, with a seal 42F202 formed betweenthem and contact pins 42F204 depending from the sensor array chippackage. FIGS. 42F3 and 42F4 show sections, respectively, throughsection lines H-H and I-I of FIG. 42F5, permitting one to see inrelationship the sensor array chip 42F250, the baffles 4220F′ and fluidflow paths via inlet 42F260 and outlet 42F270 ports.

By applying a metallization to bottom 42F280 of member 42F200, thereference electrode may be formed.

Various other locations and approaches may be used for introducing fluidflow into the flow chamber, as well. In addition to embodiments in whichfluid may be introduced across the width of an edge of the chip assembly42F1, as in FIGS. 57-58, for example, or fluid may be introduced at onecorner of the chip assembly, as in FIG. 42F1. Fluid also may beintroduced, for example, as in FIGS. 42G and 42H, where fluid is flowedthrough an inlet conduit 4252G to be discharged adjacent and toward thecenter of the chip, as at 4254G, and flowed radially outwardly from theintroduction point.

FIGS. 42I and 42J in conjunction with FIGS. 42G and 42H depict incross-section an example of such a structure and its operation. Incontrast with earlier examples, this embodiment contains an additionalelement, a diaphragm valve, 4260I. Initially, as shown in FIG. 42H, thevalve 4260I is open, providing a path via conduit 4262I to a wastereservoir (not shown). The open valve provides a low impedance flow tothe waste reservoir or outlet. Air pressure is then applied to thediaphragm valve, as in FIG. 42J, closing the low impedance path andcausing the fluid flow to continue downwardly through central bore 4264Jin member 4266J which forms the ceiling of the flow chamber, and acrossthe chip (sensor) assembly. The flow is collected by the channels at theedges of the sensor, as described above, and exits to the waste outputvia conduit 4268J.

A variation on this idea is depicted in FIGS. 42K-42M, which show fluidbeing introduced not at the center of the chip assembly, but at onecorner, 4272K, instead. It flows across the chip 3412 as symbolicallyindicated by lines 4274K and is removed at the diagonally opposingcorner, 4276K. The advantage of this concept is that it all buteliminates any stagnation points. It also has the advantage that thesensor array can be positioned vertically so that the flow is introducedat the bottom and removed at the top to aid in the clearance of bubbles.This type of embodiment, by the way, may be considered as one quadrantof the embodiments with the flow introduced in the center of the array.An example of an implementation with a valve 4278L closed and shuntingflow to the waste outlet or reservoir is shown in FIG. 42L. The maindifference with respect to the embodiment of FIGS. 42I and 42J is thatthe fluid flow is introduced at a corner of the array rather than at itscenter.

In all cases, attention should be given to assuring a thorough washingof the entire flow chamber, along with the microwells, between reagentcycles. Flow disturbances may exacerbate the challenge of fully cleaningout the flow chamber.

Flow disturbances may also induce or multiply bubbles in the fluid. Abubble may prevent the fluid from reaching a microwell, or delay itsintroduction to the microwell, introducing error into the microwellreading or making the output from that microwell useless in theprocessing of outputs from the array. Thus, care should be taken inselecting configurations and dimensions for the flow disruptor elementsto manage these potential adverse factors. For example, a tradeoff maybe made between the heights of the disruptor elements and the velocityprofile change that is desired.

FIGS. 43-44 show another alternative flow cell design, 4310. This designrelies on the molding of a single plastic piece or member 4320 to beattached to the chip to complete the flow cell. The connection to thefluidic system is made via threaded connections tapped into appropriateholes in the plastic piece at 4330 and 4340. Or, if the member 4320 ismade of a material such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), the connectionsmay be made by simply inserting the tubing into an appropriately sizedhole in the member 4320. A vertical cross section of this design isshown in FIGS. 43-44. This design may use an overhanging plastic collar4350 (which may be a solid wall as shown or a series of depending,spaced apart legs forming a downwardly extending fence-like wall) toenclose the chip package and align the plastic piece with the chippackage, or other suitable structure, and thereby to alignment the chipframe with the flow cell forming member 4320. Liquid is directed intothe flow cell via one of apertures 4330, 4340, thence downwardly towardsthe flow chamber.

In the illustrated embodiment, the reference electrode is introduced tothe top of the flow chamber via a bore 4325 in the member 4320. Theplacement of the removable reference electrode is facilitated by asilicone sleeve 4360 and an epoxy stop ring 4370 (see the blow-up ofFIG. 44). The silicone sleeve provides a tight seal and the epoxy stopring prevent the electrode from being inserted too far into the flowcell. Of course, other mechanisms may be employed for the same purposes,and it may not be necessary to employ structure to stop the electrode.And if a material such as PDMS is used for member 4320, the materialitself may form a watertight seal when the electrode is inserted,obviating need for the silicone sleeve.

FIGS. 45 and 46 show a similar arrangement except that member 4510 lacksa bore for receiving a reference electrode. Instead, the referenceelectrode 4515 is formed on or affixed to the bottom of central portion4520 and forms at least part of the flow chamber ceiling. For example, ametallization layer may be applied onto the bottom of central portion4520 before member 4510 is mounted onto the chip package.

FIGS. 47-48 show another example, which is a variant of the embodimentshown in FIGS. 43-44, but wherein the frame is manufactured as part ofthe flow cell rather attaching a flow port structure to a framepreviously attached to the chip surface. In designs of this type,assembly is somewhat more delicate since the wirebonds to the chip arenot protected by the epoxy encapsulating the chip. The success of thisdesign is dependent on the accurate placement and secure gluing of theintegrated “frame” to the surface of the chip. A counterpart embodimentto that of FIGS. 45-46, with the reference electrode 4910 on the ceilingof the flow chamber, and with the frame manufactured as part of the flowcell, is shown in FIGS. 49-50.

Yet another alternative for a fluidics assembly, as shown in FIGS.51-52, has a fluidics member 5110 raised by about 5.5 mm on stand-offs5120 from the top of the chip package 5130. This allows for an operatorto visually inspect the quality of the bonding between plastic piece5140 and chip surface and reinforce the bonding externally if necessary.

Some of the foregoing alternative embodiments also may be implemented ina hybrid plastic/PDMS configuration. For example, as shown in FIGS.53-54, a plastic part 5310 may make up the frame and flow chamber,resting on a PDMS “base” portion 5320. The plastic part 5310 may alsoprovides a region 5330 to the array, for expansion of the fluid flowfrom the inlet port; and the PDMS part may then include communicatingslits 5410, 5412 through which liquids are passed from the PDMS part toand from the flow chamber below.

The fluidic structure may also be made from glass as discussed above,such as photo-definable (PD) glass. Such a glass may have an enhancedetch rate in hydrofluoric acid once selectively exposed to UV light andfeatures may thereby be micromachined on the top-side and back-side,which when glued together can form a three-dimensional low aspect ratiofluidic cell.

An example is shown in FIG. 55. A first glass layer or sheet 5510 hasbeen patterned and etched to create nanoport fluidic holes 5522 and 5524on the top-side and fluid expansion channels 5526 and 5528 on theback-side. A second glass layer or sheet 5530 has been patterned andetched to provide downward fluid input/output channels 5532 and 5534, ofabout 300 μm height (the thickness of the layer). The bottom surface oflayer 5530 is thinned to the outside of channels 5532 and 5534, to allowthe layer 5530 to rest on the chip frame and protrusion area 5542 to beat an appropriate height to form the top of the flow channel. Two glasslayers, or wafers, and four lithography steps required. Both wafersshould be aligned and bonded (e.g., with an appropriate glue, not shown)such that the downward fluid input/output ports are aligned properlywith the fluid expansion channels. Alignment targets may be etched intothe glass to facilitate the alignment process.

Nanoports may be secured over the nanoport fluidic holes to facilitateconnection of input and output tubing.

A central bore 5550 may be etched through the glass layers for receivinga reference electrode, 5560. The electrode may be secured and sealed inplace with a silicone collar 5570 or like structure; or the electrodemay be equipped integrally with a suitable washer for effecting the samepurpose.

By using glass materials for the two-layer fluidic cell, the referenceelectrode may also be a conductive layer or pattern deposited on thebottom surface of the second glass layer (not shown). Or, as shown inFIG. 56, the protrusion region may be etched to form a permeable glassmembrane 5610 on the top of which is coated a silver (or other material)thin-film 5620 to form an integrated reference electrode. A hole 5630may be etched into the upper layer for accessing the electrode and ifthat hole is large enough, it can also serve as a reservoir for a silverchloride solution. Electrical connection to the thin-film silverelectrode may be made in any suitable way, such as by using a clip-onpushpin connector or alternatively wirebonded to the ceramic ISFETpackage.

Another alternative is to integrate the reference electrode to thesequencing chip/flow cell by using a metalized surface on the ceiling ofthe flow chamber—i.e., on the underside of the member forming theceiling of the fluidic cell. An electrical connection to the metalizedsurface may be made in any of a variety of ways, including, but notlimited to, by means of applying a conductive epoxy to the ceramicpackage seal ring that, in turn, may be electrically connected through avia in the ceramic substrate to a spare pin at the bottom of the chippackage. Doing this would allow system-level control of the referencepotential in the fluid cell by means of inputs through the chip socketmount to the chip's control electronics.

By contrast, an externally inserted electrode requires extra fluidtubing to the inlet port, which requires additional fluid flow betweencycles.

Ceramic pin grid array (PGA) packaging may be used for the ISFET array,allowing customized electrical connections between various surfaces onthe front face with pins on the back.

The flow cell can be thought of as a “lid” to the ISFET chip and itsPGA. The flow cell, as stated elsewhere, may be fabricated of manydifferent materials. Injection molded polycarbonate appears to be quitesuitable. A conductive metal (e.g., gold) may be deposited using anadhesion layer (e.g., chrome) to the underside of the glow cell roof(the ceiling of the flow chamber). Appropriate low-temperature thin-filmdeposition techniques preferably are employed in the deposition of themetal reference electrode due to the materials (e.g., polycarbonate) andlarge step coverage topography at the bottom-side of the fluidic cell(i.e., the frame surround of ISFET array). One possible approach wouldbe to use electron-beam evaporation in a planetary system.

The active electrode area is confined to the central flow chamber insidethe frame surround of the ISFET array, as that is the only metalizedsurface that would be in contact with the ionic fluid during sequencing.

Once assembly is complete—conductive epoxy (e.g., Epo-Tek H20E orsimilar) may be dispensed on the seal ring with the flow cell aligned,placed, pressed and cured—the ISFET flow cell is ready for operationwith the reference potential being applied to the assigned pin of thepackage.

The resulting fluidic system connections to the ISFET device thusincorporate shortened input and output fluidic lines, which isdesirable.

Still another example embodiment for a fluidic assembly is shown inFIGS. 57-58. This design is limited to a plastic piece 5710 whichincorporates the frame and is attached directly to the chip surface, andto a second piece 5720 which is used to connect tubing from the fluidicsystem and similarly to the PDMS piece discussed above, distributes theliquids from the small bore tube to a wide flat slit. The two pieces areglued together and multiple (e.g., three) alignment markers (not shown)may be used to precisely align the two pieces during the gluing process.A hole may be provided in the bottom plate and the hole used to fill thecavity with an epoxy (for example) to protect the wirebonds to the chipand to fill in any potential gaps in the frame/chip contact. In theillustrated example, the reference electrode is external to the flowcell (downstream in the exhaust stream, through the outlet port—seebelow), though other configurations of reference electrode may, ofcourse, be used.

Still further examples of flow cell structures are shown in FIGS. 59-60.FIG. 59A comprises eight views (A-H) of an injection molded bottomlayer, or plate, 5910, for a flow cell fluidics interface, while FIG.59B comprises seven views (A-G) of a mating, injection molded top plate,or layer, 5950. The bottom of plate 5910 has a downwardly depending rim5912 configured and arranged to enclose the sensor chip and an upwardlyextending rim 5914 for mating with the top plate 5610 along its outeredge. To form two fluid chambers (an inlet chamber and an outletchamber) between them. A stepped, downwardly depending portion 5960 oftop plate 5950, separates the input chamber from the output chamber. Aninlet tube 5970 and an outlet tube 5980 are integrally molded with therest of top plate 5950. From inlet tube 5970, which empties at the smallend of the inlet chamber formed by a depression 5920 in the top of plate5910, to the outlet edge of inlet chamber fans out to direct fluidacross the whole array.

Whether glass or plastic or other material is used to form the flowcell, it may be desirable, especially with larger arrays, to include inthe inlet chamber of the flow cell, between the inlet conduit and thefront edge of the array, not just a gradually expanding (fanning out)space, but also some structure to facilitate the flow across the arraybeing suitably laminar. Using the bottom layer 5990 of an injectionmolded flow cell as an example, one example type of structure for thispurpose, shown in FIG. 59C, is a tree structure 5992 of channels fromthe inlet location of the flow cell to the front edge of the microwellarray or sensor array, which should be understood to be under the outletside of the structure, at 5994.

The above-described systems for sequencing typically utilize a laminarfluid flow system to sequence a biological polymer. In part, the fluidflow system preferably includes a flow chamber formed by the sensor chipand a single piece, injection molded member comprising inlet and outletports and mountable over the chip to establish the flow chamber. Thesurface of such member interior to the chamber is preferably formed tofacilitate a desired expedient fluid flow, as described herein.

In some embodiments, the invention encompasses an apparatus fordetection of ion pulses comprising a laminar fluid flow system.Preferably, the apparatus is used for sequencing a plurality of nucleicacid templates, wherein the nucleic acid templates are optionallydeposited on an array.

The apparatus typically includes a fluidics assembly comprising a membercomprising one or more apertures for non-mechanically directing a fluidto flow to an array of at least 100K, 500K, or 1M microfluidic reactionchambers such that the fluid reaches all of the microfluidic reactionchambers at the same time or substantially the same time. Typically, thefluid flow is parallel to the sensor surface. Typically, the assemblyhas a Reynolds number of less than 1000, 500, 200, 100, 50, 20, or 10.Preferably, the member further comprises a first aperture for directingfluid towards the sensor array and a second aperture for directing fluidaway from the sensor array.

In some embodiments, the invention encompasses a method for directing afluid to a sensor array comprising: providing a fluidics assemblycomprising an aperture fluidly coupling a fluid source to the sensorarray; and non-mechanically directing a fluid to the sensor array. By“non-mechanically” it is meant that the fluid is moved under pressurefrom a gaseous pressure source, as opposed to a mechanical pump.

In some embodiments, the invention encompasses an array of wells, eachof which is coupled to a lid having an inlet port and an outlet port anda fluid delivery system for delivering and removing fluid from saidinlet and outlet ports non-mechanically.

In some embodiments, the invention encompasses a method for sequencing abiological polymer utilizing the above-described apparatus, comprising:directing a fluid comprising a monomer to an array of reaction chamberswherein the fluid has a fluid flow Reynolds number of at most 2000,1000, 200, 100, 50, or 20. The method may optionally further comprisedetecting an ion pulse from each said reaction chamber. The ion pulse istypically detected by ion diffusion to the sensor surface. There arevarious other ways of providing a fluidics assembly for delivering anappropriate fluid flow across the microwell and sensor array assembly,and the forgoing examples are thus not intended to be exhaustive.

Reference Electrode

Commercial flow-type fluidic electrodes, such as silver chlorideproton-permeable electrodes, may be inserted in series in a fluidic lineand are generally designed to provide a stable electrical potentialalong the fluidic line for various electrochemical purposes. In theabove-discussed system, however, such a potential must be maintained atthe fluidic volume in contact with the microwell ISFET chip. Withconventional silver chloride electrodes, it has been found difficult,due to an electrically long fluidic path between the chip surface andthe electrode (through small channels in the flow cell), to achieve astable potential. This led to reception of noise in the chip'selectronics. Additionally, the large volume within the flow cavity ofthe electrode tended to trap and accumulate gas bubbles that degradedthe electrical connection to the fluid. With reference to FIG. 60, asolution to this problem has been found in the use of a stainless steelcapillary tube electrode 6010, directly connected to the chip's flowcell outlet port 6020 and connected to a voltage source (not shown)through a shielded cable 6030. The metal capillary tube 6010 has a smallinner diameter (e.g., on the order of 0.01″) that does not trap gas toany appreciable degree and effectively transports fluid and gas likeother microfluidic tubing. Also, because the capillary tube can bedirectly inserted into the flow cell port 6020, it close to the chipsurface, reducing possible electrical losses through the fluid. Thelarge inner surface area of the capillary tube (typically about 2″ long)may also contribute to its high performance. The stainless steelconstruction is highly chemically resistant, and should not be subjectto electrochemical effects due to the very low electrical current use inthe system (<1 μA). A fluidic fitting 6040 is attached to the end of thecapillary that is not in the flow cell port, for connection to tubing tothe fluid delivery and removal subsystem.

Fluidics System

A complete system for using the sensor array will include suitable fluidsources, valving and a controller for operating the valving to lowreagents and washes over the microarray or sensor array, depending onthe application. These elements are readily assembled from off-the-shelfcomponents, with and the controller may readily be programmed to performa desired experiment.

It should be understood that the readout at the chemFET may be currentor voltage (and change thereof) and that any particular reference toeither readout is intended for simplicity and not to the exclusion ofthe other readout. Therefore any reference in the following text toeither current or voltage detection at the chemFET should be understoodto contemplate and apply equally to the other readout as well. Inimportant embodiments, the readout reflects a rapid, transient change inconcentration of an analyte. The concentration of more than one analytemay be detected at different times. Such measurements are to becontrasted with prior art methods which focused on steady stateconcentration measurements.

Applications Generally

As already discussed, the apparatus and systems of the invention can beused to detect and/or monitor interactions between various entities.These interactions include biological and chemical reactions and mayinvolve enzymatic reactions and/or non-enzymatic interactions such asbut not limited to binding events. As an example, the inventioncontemplates monitoring enzymatic reactions in which substrates and/orreagents are consumed and/or reaction intermediates, byproducts and/orproducts are generated. An example of a reaction that can be monitoredaccording to the invention is a nucleic acid synthesis method such asone that provides information regarding nucleic acid sequence. Thisreaction will be discussed in greater detail herein.

Sequencing Applications

In the context of a sequencing reaction, the apparatus and systemprovided herein is able to detect nucleotide incorporation based onchanges in the chemFET current and/or voltage, as those latterparameters are interrelated. Current changes may be the result of one ormore of the following events either singly or some combination thereof:generation of PPi, generation of Pi (e.g., in the presence ofpyrophosphatase), generation of hydrogen (and concomitant changes in pHfor example in the presence of low strength buffer), reducedconcentration of unincorporated dNTP at the chemFET surface, delayedarrival of unincorporated dNTP at the chemFET surface, and the like. Themethods described herein are able to detect changes in analyteconcentration at the chemFET surface, and such changes may result fromone or more of the afore-mentioned events. The invention contemplatesthe use of a chemFET such as an ISFET in the sequencing methodsdescribed herein, even if the readout is independent of (or insensitiveto) pH. In other words, the invention contemplates the use of an ISFETfor the detection of analytes such as PPi and unincorporatednucleotides. The methods provided herein in regards to sequencing can becontrasted to those in the literature including Pourmand et al. PNAS2006 103(17):6466-6470. As discussed herein, the invention contemplatesmethods for determining the nucleotide sequence (i.e., the “sequence”)of a nucleic acid. Such methods involve the synthesis of a new nucleicacid (primed by a pre-existing nucleic acid, as will be appreciated bythose of ordinary skill), based on the sequence of a template nucleicacid. That is, the sequence of the newly synthesized nucleic acid iscomplimentary to the sequence of the template nucleic acid and thereforeknowledge of sequence of the newly synthesized nucleic acid yieldsinformation about the sequence of the template nucleic acid. Knowledgeof the sequence of the newly synthesized nucleic acid is derived bydetermining whether a known nucleotide has been incorporated into thenewly synthesized nucleic acid and, if so, how many of such knownnucleotides have been incorporated. Nucleotide incorporation can bemonitored in a number of ways, including the production of products suchas PPi, Pi and/or H⁺.

The nucleic acid being sequenced is referred to herein as the targetnucleic acid. Target nucleic acids include but are not limited to DNAsuch as but not limited to genomic DNA, mitochondrial DNA, cDNA and thelike, and RNA such as but not limited to mRNA, miRNA, and the like. Thenucleic acid may be from any source including naturally occurringsources or synthetic sources. The nucleic acids may be PCR products,cosmids, plasmids, naturally occurring or synthetic libraries, and thelike. The invention is not intended to be limited in this regard. Themethods provided herein can be used to sequence nucleic acids of anylength.

Target nucleic acids are prepared using any manner known in the art. Asan example, genomic DNA may be harvested from a sample according totechniques known in the art (see for example Sambrook et al.“Maniatis”). Following harvest, the DNA may be fragmented to yieldnucleic acids of smaller length. The resulting fragments may be on theorder of hundreds, thousands, or tens of thousands nucleotides inlength. In some embodiments, the fragments are 200-1000 base pairs insize, or 300-800 base pairs in size, about 200, about 300, about 400,about 500, about 600, about 700, about 800, about 900, or about 1000base pairs in length, although they are not so limited. Nucleic acidsmay be fragmented by any means including but not limited to mechanical,enzymatic or chemical means. Examples include shearing, sonication,nebulization, endonuclease (e.g., DNase I) digestion, amplification suchas PCR amplification, or any other technique known in the art to producenucleic acid fragments, preferably of a desired length. As used herein,fragmentation also embraces the use of amplification to generate apopulation of smaller sized fragments of the target nucleic acid. Thatis, the target nucleic acids may be melted and then annealed to two (andpreferably more) amplification primers and then amplified using forexample a thermostable polymerase (such as Taq). An example is amassively parallel PCR-based amplification. Fragmentation can befollowed by size selection techniques to enrich or isolate fragments ofa particular length or size. Such techniques are also known in the artand include but are not limited to gel electrophoresis or SPRI.

Alternatively, target nucleic acids that are already of sufficient smallsize (or length) may be used. Such target nucleic acids include thosederived from an exon enrichment process. Thus, rather than fragmenting(randomly or non-randomly) longer target nucleic acids, the targets maybe nucleic acids that naturally exist or can be isolated in shorter,useable lengths such as mRNAs, cDNAs, exons, PCR products (as describedabove), and the like. See Albert et al. Nature Methods 20074(11):903-905 (microarray hybridization of exons and locus-specificregions), Porreca et al. Nature Methods 2007 4(11):931-936, and Okou etal. Nature Methods 2007 4(11):907-909 for methods of isolating and/orenriching sequences such as exons prior to sequencing.

In some embodiments, the size selected target nucleic acids are ligatedto adaptor sequences on both the 5′ and 3′ ends. These adaptor sequencescomprise sequences complementary to amplification primer sequences, tobe used in amplifying the target nucleic acids. One adaptor sequence mayalso comprise a sequence complementary to the sequencing primer. Theopposite adaptor sequence may comprise a moiety that facilitates bindingof the nucleic acid to a solid support such as but not limited to abead. An example of such a moiety is a biotin molecule (or a doublebiotin moiety, as described by Diehl et al. Nature Methods, 2006,3(7):551-559) and such a labeled nucleic acid can therefore be bound toa solid support having avidin or streptavidin groups. Another moietythat can be used is the NHS-ester and amine affinity pair. It is to beunderstood that the invention is not limited in this regard and one ofordinary skill is able to substitute these affinity pairs with otherbinding pairs. The resulting nucleic acid is referred to herein as atemplate nucleic acid. The template nucleic acid comprises at least thetarget nucleic acid and usually comprises nucleotide sequences inaddition to the target at both the 5′ and 3′ ends.

The solid support to which the template nucleic acids are bound isreferred to herein as the “capture solid support”. If the solid supportis a bead, then such bead is referred to herein as a “capture bead”. Thebeads can be made of any material including but not limited tocellulose, cellulose derivatives, gelatin, acrylic resins, glass, silicagels, polyvinyl pyrrolidine (PVP), co-polymers of vinyl and acrylamide,polystyrene, polystyrene cross-linked with divinylbenzene or the like(see, Merrifield Biochemistry 1964, 3, 1385-1390), polyacrylamides,latex gels, dextran, crosslinked dextrans (e.g., Sephadex™) rubber,silicon, plastics, nitrocellulose, natural sponges, metal, and agarosegel (Sepharose™). In one embodiment, the beads are streptavidin-coatedbeads. The bead diameter will depend on the density of the chemFET andmicrowell array used with larger arrays (and thus smaller sized wells)requiring smaller beads. Generally the bead size may be about 1-10 μM,and more preferably 2-6 μM. In some embodiments, the beads are about5.91 μM while in other embodiments the beads are about 2.8 μM. In stillother embodiments, the beads are about 1.5 μm, or about 1 μm indiameter. It is to be understood that the beads may or may not beperfectly spherical in shape. It is also to be understood that otherbeads may be used and other mechanisms for attaching the nucleic acid tothe beads may be used. In some instances the capture beads (i.e., thebeads on which the sequencing reaction occurs) are the same as thetemplate preparation beads including the amplification beads.

Important aspects of the invention contemplate sequencing a plurality ofdifferent template nucleic acids simultaneously. This may beaccomplished using the sensor arrays described herein. In oneembodiment, the sensor arrays are overlayed (and/or integral with) anarray of microwells (or reaction chambers or wells, as those terms areused interchangeably herein), with the proviso that there be at leastone sensor per microwell. Present in a plurality of microwells is apopulation of identical copies of a template nucleic acid. There is norequirement that any two microwells carry identical template nucleicacids, although in some instances such templates may share overlappingsequence. Thus, each microwell comprises a plurality of identical copiesof a template nucleic acid, and the templates between microwells may bedifferent.

The microwells may vary in size between arrays. The microwell size maybe described in terms of cross section. The cross section may refer to a“slice” parallel to the depth (or height) of the well, or it may be aslice perpendicular to the depth (or height) of the well.

The size of these microwells may be described in terms of a width (ordiameter) to height ratio. In some embodiments, this ratio is 1:1 to1:1.5. The bead to well size (e.g., the bead diameter to well width,diameter, or height) is preferably in the range of 0.6-0.8. Themicrowells may be square in cross-section, but they are not so limited.The dimensions at the bottom of a microwell (i.e., in a cross sectionthat is perpendicular to the depth of the well) may be 1.5 μm by 1.5 μm,or it may be 1.5 μm by 2 μm. Various diameters are shown in the Examplesand include but are not limited to diameters at or about 100 μm, 95 μm,90 μm, 85 μm, 80 μm, 75 μm, 70 μm, 65 μm, 60 μm, 55 μm, 50 μm, 45 μm, 40μm, 35 μm, 30 μm, 25 μm, 20 μm, 15 μm, 10 μm, 9 μm, 8 μm, 7 μm, 6 μm, 5μm, 4 μm, 3 μm, 2 μm, 1 μm or less. In some particular embodiments, thediameters may be at or about 44 μm, 32 μm, 8 μm, 4 μm, or 1.5 μm.Various heights are shown in the Examples and include but are notlimited to heights at or about 100 μm, 95 μm, 90 μm, 85 μm, 80 μm, 75μm, 70 μm, 65 μm, 60 μm, 55 μm, 50 μm, 45 μm, 40 μm, 35 μm, 30 μm, 25μm, 20 μm, 15 μm, 10 μm, 9 μm, 8 μm, 7 μm, 6 μm, 5 μm, 4 μm, 3 μm, 2 μm,1 μm or less. In some particular embodiments, the heights may be at orabout 55 μm, 48 μm, 32 μm, 12 μm, 8 μm, 6 μm, 4 μm, 2.25 μm, 1.5 μm, orless. Various embodiments of the invention contemplate the combinationof any of these diameters with any of these heights. In still otherembodiments, the reaction well dimensions may be (diameter in μm byheight in μm) 44 by 55, 32 by 32, 32 by 48, 8 by 8, 8 by 12, 4 by 4, 4by 6, 1.5 by 1.5, or 1.5 by 2.25.

The reaction well volume may range (between arrays, and preferably notwithin a single array) based on the well dimensions. This volume may beat or about 100 picoliter (pL), 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, orfewer pL. In important embodiments, the well volume is less than 1 μL,including equal to or less than 0.5 pL, equal to or less than 0.1 pL,equal to or less than 0.05 pL, equal to or less than 0.01 pL, equal toor less than 0.005 pL, or equal to or less than 0.001 pL. The volume maybe 0.001 to 0.9 pL, 0.001 to 0.5 pL, 0.001 to 0.1 pL, 0.001 to 0.05 pL,or 0.005 to 0.05 pL. In particular embodiments, the well volume is 75pL, 34 pL, 23 pL, 0.54 pL, 0.36 pL, 0.07 pL, 0.045 pL, 0.0024 pL, or0.004 pL. The plurality of templates in each microwell may be introducedinto the microwells (e.g., via a nucleic acid loaded bead), or it may begenerated in the microwell itself. A plurality is defined herein as atleast two, and in the context of template nucleic acids in a microwellor on a nucleic acid loaded bead includes tens, hundreds, thousands, tenthousands, hundred thousands, millions, or more copies of the templatenucleic acid. The limit on the number of copies will depend on a numberof variables including the number of binding sites for template nucleicacids (e.g., on the beads or on the walls of the microwells), the sizeof the beads, the length of the template nucleic acid, the extent of theamplification reaction used to generate the plurality, and the like. Itis generally preferred to have as many copies of a given template perwell in order to increase signal to noise ratio as much as possible.Amplification and conjugation of nucleic acids to solid supports such asbeads may be accomplished in a number of ways, including but not limitedto emulsion PCR (i.e., water in oil emulsion amplification) as describedby Margulies et al. Nature 2005 437(15):376-380 and accompanyingsupplemental materials. In some embodiments, the amplification is arepresentative amplification. A representative amplification is anamplification that does not alter the relative representation of anynucleic acid species. The wells generally also include sequencingprimers, polymerases and other substrates or catalysts necessary for thesynthesis reaction.

The degree of saturation of any capture (i.e., sequencing) bead withtemplate nucleic acid to be sequenced may not be 100%. In someembodiments, a saturation level of 10%-100% exists. As used herein, thedegree of saturation of a capture bead with a template refers to theproportion of sites on the bead that are conjugated to template. In someinstances this may be at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%,45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or it may be100%.

It will be understood that the amount of sequencing primers andpolymerases may be saturating, above saturating level, or in someinstances below saturating levels. As used herein, a saturating level ofa sequencing primer or a polymerase is a level at which every templatenucleic acid is hybridized to a sequencing primer or bound by apolymerase, respectively. Thus the saturating amount is the number ofpolymerases or primers that is equal to the number of templates on asingle bead. In some embodiments, the level is at greater than this,including at least 2 fold, 3 fold, 4 fold, 5 fold, 10 fold, or more overthe level of the template nucleic acid. In other embodiments, the numberof polymerases and/or primers may be 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%,80%, 90%, or up to 100% of the number of templates on a single bead in asingle well.

Thus, for example, before and/or while in the wells, the templatenucleic acids are incubated with a sequencing primer that binds to itscomplementary sequence located on the 3′ end of the template nucleicacid (i.e., either in the amplification primer sequence or in anotheradaptor sequence ligated to the 3′ end of the target nucleic acid) andwith a polymerase for a time and under conditions that promotehybridization of the primer to its complementary sequence and thatpromote binding of the polymerase to the template nucleic acid. Theprimer can be of virtually any sequence provided it is long enough to beunique. The hybridization conditions are such that the primer willhybridize to only its true complement on the 3′ end of the template.Suitable conditions are disclosed in Margulies et al. Nature 2005437(15):376-380 and accompanying supplemental materials.

As described herein, the template nucleic acids may be engineered suchthat different templates have identical 5′ ends and identical 3′ ends.In some embodiments, however, the invention contemplates the use of aplurality of template populations, wherein each member of a givenplurality shares the same 3′ end but different template populationsdiffer from each other based on their 3′ end sequences. As an example,the invention contemplates in some instances sequencing nucleic acidsfrom more than one subject or source. Nucleic acids from first sourcemay have a first 3′ sequence, nucleic acids from a second source mayhave a second 3′ sequence, and so on, provided that the first and second3′ sequences are different. In this respect, the 3′ end, which istypically a unique sequence, can be used as a barcode or identifier tolabel (or identify) the source of the particular nucleic acid in a givenwell. Reference can be made to Meyer et al. Nucleic Acids Research 200735(15):e97 for a discussion of labeling nucleic acid with barcodesfollowed by sequencing. In some instances, the sequencing primers (ifused) may be hybridized (or annealed, as the terms are usedinterchangeably herein) to the templates prior to loading (orintroducing) the beads to the wells or after such loading.

The 5′ and 3′ ends on every individual template however are preferablydifferent in sequence. In particular, the templates share identicalprimer binding sequences. This facilitates the use of an identicalprimer across microwells and also ensures that a similar (or identical)degree of primer hybridization occurs across microwells. Once annealedto complementary primers such as sequencing primers, the templates arein a complex referred to herein as a template/primer hybrid. In thishybrid, one region of the template is double stranded (i.e., where it isbound to its complementary primer) and one region is single stranded. Itis this single stranded region that acts as the template for theincorporation of nucleotides to the end of the primer and thus it isalso this single stranded region which is ultimately sequenced accordingto the invention.

Data capture rates can vary and be for example anywhere from 10-100frames per second and the choice of which rate to use will be dictatedat least in part by the well size and the presence of packing beads orother diffusion limiting techniques. Smaller well sizes generallyrequire faster data capture rates.

The systems described herein can be used for sequencing unlabeledbiological polymers without optical detection.

In some embodiments, the invention encompasses a sequencing apparatusadapted for sequencing unlabeled biological polymers without opticaldetection and comprising an array of at least 100 reaction chambers.

Typically, each reaction chamber is capacitively coupled to a chemFET.

Preferably, each reaction chamber is no greater than about 0.39 pL involume and about 49 μm² surface aperture, and more preferably has anaperture no greater than about 16 μm² and volume no greater than about0.064 pL. Preferably, the array has at least 1,000, 10,000, 100,000, or1,000,000 reaction chambers.

Typically, the reaction chambers comprise microfluidic wells.

In another embodiment, the invention encompasses a method for sequencinga biological polymer with the above-described apparatus comprisingmeasuring time of incorporation of individual monomers into anelongating polymer.

Typically, the biological polymer is a nucleic acid template and themonomer is a nucleotide. Preferably, the nucleic acid template has200-700 base pairs. Preferably, the nucleic acid template is amplifiedprior to determining the sequence.

The nucleic acid template used in this and other methods of theinvention may be derived from a variety of sources by a variety ofmethods, all known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Templates maybe derived from, but are not limited to, entire genomes of varyingcomplexity, cDNA, mRNA or siRNA samples, or may represent entirepopulations, as in the various environmental and metabiome sequencingprojects. Template nucleic acids may also be generated from specificsubsets of nucleic acid populations including but not limited to PCRproducts, specific exons or regions of interest, or 16S or otherdiagnostic or identifying genomic regions.

Non-Sequencing Applications

It is to be understood that interactions between receptors and ligandsor between two members of a binding pair or between components of amolecular complex can also be detected using the chemFET arrays.Examples of such interactions include hybridization of nucleic acids toeach other, protein-nucleic acid binding, protein-protein binding,enzyme-substrate binding, enzyme-inhibitor binding, antigen-antibodybinding, and the like. Any binding or hybridization event that causes achange of the semiconductor charge density at the chemFET interface andthus changes the current that flows from the source to the drain of thesensors described herein can be detected according to the invention.

The invention contemplates combining such nucleic acid arrays with thechemFET arrays and particularly the “large scale” chemFET arraysdescribed herein. These arrays include those comprising 10³, 10⁴, 10⁵,10⁶, 10⁷ or more sensors. These arrays also include those havingcenter-to-center spacings between adjacent sensors in the range of 1-10microns, as described herein. These arrays may also be characterized ashaving total surface areas of equal to or less than 441 mm² (e.g., 21 mmby 21 mm), or 81 mm² (e.g., 9 mm by 9 mm), or 49 mm² (e.g., 7 mm by 7mm), for example.

The chemFET/nucleic acid array can be used in a variety of applications,some of which will not require the wells (or microwells or reactionchambers, as they are interchangeably referred to herein). Sinceanalyses may still be carried out in flow, including in a “closed”system (i.e., where the flow of reagents and wash solutions and the likeis automated), there will be one or more flow chambers situated aboveand in contact with the array. The use of multiple flow chambers allowsmultiple, preferably different, samples (including, for example, nucleicacid libraries) to be analyzed simultaneously. There may be 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more flow chambers. This configuration applies equallyto other biological arrays including those discussed herein such asprotein arrays, antibody arrays, enzyme arrays, chemical arrays, and thelike.

Since the binding event between binding partners or between componentsof a complex is detected electronically via the underlying chemFET, suchassays may be carried out without the need to manipulate (e.g.,extrinsically label) the sample being assayed. This is advantageoussince such manipulation invariably results in loss of sample andgenerally requires increased time and work up. In addition, the presentmethod allows binding interactions to be studied in real time.

It is further to be understood that many of the terms including variousnucleic acid embodiments, chemFET array embodiments, and reactionchambers embodiments, inter alia, described herein in the context ofsequencing applications are equally applicable to the non-sequencingapplications contemplated by the invention and described in greaterdetail below.

In these embodiments, the passivation layer (or possibly an intermediatelayer coated onto the passivation layer) is functionalized with nucleicacids (e.g., DNA, RNA, miRNA, cDNA, and the like), antigens (which canbe of any nature), proteins (e.g., enzymes, cofactors, antibodies,antibody fragments, and the like), and the like. Conjugation of theseentities to the passivation layer can be direct or indirect (e.g., usingbifunctional linkers that bind to both the passivation layer reactivegroup and the entity to be bound).

Development of the very large chemFET arrays and systems providesconsiderable advantages to a wide assortment of applications beyond theparticular DNA sequencing process described above. Briefly, some ofthose applications will now be discussed, recognizing that in doing so,there may be some repetition over the discussion already presented.

The configurations of the chemFET arrays and the biological or chemicalarrays are similar in each instance and the discussion of onecombination array will apply to others described herein or otherwiseknown in the art.

In most or all of the applications noted below, the analyte may bepresented in a liquid medium or under air or other gas flow.

Methods for attaching nucleic acids, proteins, molecules, and the liketo solid supports, particularly in the context of an array, have beendescribed in the art. See for example Lipshutz et al. Nat. Genet.(supplement) 1999 21:20-24; Li et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 2001,98:31-36; Lockhart et al. Nat. Biotechnol. 1996 14:1675-1680; Wodicka etal. Nat. Biotechnol. 1997 15: 1359-1367; Chen et al. Journal ofBiomedical Optics 1997 2:364; Duggan et al. Nat Genet. 1991 21(1Suppl):10-4; Marton et al. Nat. Med. 1998 4(11):1293-301; Kononen et al.Nat Med 1998 4(7):844-847; MacBeath et al., Science 2000289(5485):1760-1763; Haab et al. Genome Biology 2001 2(2); Pollack etal. Nat Genet. 1999 23(1):41-6; Wang D G et al. Science 1998280(5366):1077-82; Fodor et al. Science 1991 251:767-773; Fodor et al.Nature 1993 364:555-556; Pease et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 199491:5022-5026; Fodor Science 1997 277:393-395; Southern et al. Genomics1992 13: 1008-1017; Schena et al. Science 1995 270(5235):467-70; Shalonet al. Genome Res 1996 6(7):639-45; Jongsma Proteomics 2006,6:2650-2655; Sakata, Biosensors and Bioelectronics 2007, 22: 1311-1316.

Oligonucleotide Microarrays

One such application involves the generation and interrogation ofoligonucleotide arrays comprised of nucleic acids (e.g., DNA), single ordouble stranded, immobilized on the chemFET array.

As an example, reaction groups such as amine or thiol groups may beadded to a nucleic acid at any nucleotide during synthesis to provide apoint of attachment for a bifunctional linker. As another example, thenucleic acid may be synthesized by incorporating conjugation-competentreagents such as Uni-Link AminoModifier, 3′-DMT-C6-Amine-ON CPG,AminoModifier II, N-TFA-C6-AminoModifier, C6-ThiolModifier, C6-DisulfidePhosphoramidite and C6-Disulfide CPG (Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.).Other methods for attaching nucleic acids are discussed below.

In one aspect of the invention, the chemFET arrays are provided incombination with nucleic acid arrays. Nucleic acids in the form of shortnucleic acids (e.g., oligonucleotides) or longer nucleic acids (e.g.,full length cDNAs) can be provided on chemFET surfaces of the arraysdescribed herein. Nucleic acid arrays generally comprise a plurality ofphysically defined regions on a planar surface (e.g., “spots”) each ofwhich has conjugated to it one and more preferably more nucleic acids.The regions are aligned with the sensors in the sensor array such thatthere is one sensor for each region. The nucleic acids are usuallysingle stranded. The nucleic acids conjugated to a given spot areusually identical. The nucleic acids conjugated to different spots maybe different from each other or they may be identical.

Thus, the nucleic acid arrays may comprise a plurality of identical (andthus homogeneous) nucleic acids (e.g., where more than one chemFETsurface (or spots), and optionally the entire chemFET array surface hasconjugated to it identical nucleic acids). Thus, the identical nucleicacids may be uniformly distributed on a planar surface or they may beorganized into discrete regions (or cells) on that surface.Alternatively, the nucleic acid arrays may comprise a plurality ofdifferent (and thus heterogeneous) nucleic acids.

The plurality of nucleic acids in a single region may vary depending onthe length of the nucleic acid, the size of the region, and the methodused to attach the nucleic acid thereto, and may be but is not limitedto at least 10, 50, 100, 500, 10³, 10⁴ or more. The array itself mayhave any number of regions, including but not limited to at least 10,10², 10³, 10⁴, 10⁵, 10⁶, 10⁷, or more. In these and other embodiments,the regions (or cells) are aligned with the sensors in the sensor arraysuch that there is one sensor for each region (or cell).

In the context of an oligonucleotide array, these nucleic acids may beon the order of less 100 nucleotides in length (including about 10, 20,25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 or 100 nucleotides in length). If thearrays are used to detect certain genes (including mutations in suchgenes or expression levels of such genes), then the array may include anumber of spots each of which contains oligonucleotides that span adefined and potentially different sequence of the gene. These spots arethen located across the planar surface in order to exclude positionrelated effects in the hybridization and readout means of the array.

The binding or hybridization of the sample nucleic acids and theimmobilized nucleic acids is generally performed under stringenthybridization conditions as that term is understood in the art. (See forexample Sambrook et al. “Maniatis”.) Examples of relevant conditionsinclude (in order of increasing stringency): incubation temperatures of25° C., 37° C., 50° C. and 68° C.; buffer concentrations of 10×SSC,6×SSC, 4×SSC, 1×SSC, 0.1×SSC (where SSC is 0.15 M NaCl and 15 mM citratebuffer) and their equivalents using other buffer systems; formamideconcentrations of 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75%; incubation times from 5 minutesto 24 hours; 1, 2, or more washing steps; wash incubation times of 1, 2,or 15 minutes; and wash solutions of 6×SSC, 1×SSC, 0.1×SSC, or deionizedwater. By way of example hybridization may be performed at 50% formamideand 4×SSC followed by washes of 2×SSC/formamide at 50° C. and with1×SSC.

Nucleic acid arrays include those in which already formed nucleic acidssuch as cDNAs are deposited (or “spotted”) on the array in a specificlocation. Nucleic acids can be spotted onto a surface bypiezoelectrically deposition, UV cross-linking of nucleic acids topolymer layers such as but not limited to poly-L-lysine or polypyrrole,direct conjugation to silicon coated SiO₂ as described in published USpatent application 2003/0186262, direct conjugation to a silanisedchemFET surface (e.g., a surface treated with3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) as described by Uslu et al.Biosensors and Bioelectronics 2004, 19:1723-1731, for example.

Nucleic acid arrays also include those in which nucleic acids (such asoligonucleotides of known sequence) are synthesized directly on thearray. Nucleic acids can be synthesized on arrays using art-recognizedtechniques such as but not limited to printing with fine-pointed pinsonto glass slides, photolithography using pre-made masks,photolithography using dynamic micromirror devices (such as DLPmirrors), ink-jet printing, or electrochemistry on microelectrodearrays. Reference can also be made to Nuwaysir et al. 2002 “Geneexpression analysis using oligonucleotide arrays produced by masklessphotolithography.”. Genome Res 12: 1749-1755. Commercial sources of thislatter type of array include Agilent, Affymetrix, and NimbleGen.

Thus the chemFET passivation layer may be coated with an intermediatelayer of reactive molecules (and therefore reactive groups) to which thenucleic acids are bound and/or from which they are synthesized.

Any of the binding chemistries traditionally utilized to generate forexample DNA arrays on substrates, such as glass, plastic, nylon,nitrocellulose and activated gels, may be used to immobilize nucleicacids on the chemFET array. Some of the more common chemistries aresummarized in the review in Zammatteo, N. et al., “Comparison betweendifferent strategies of covalent attachment of DNA to glass surfaces tobuild DNA microarrays,” Anal Biochem 280, 143-50 (2000), and detailedbriefly herein.

DNA immobilization can entail non-covalent (e.g., ionic) or covalentbinding chemistries. Ionic binding most commonly employs the interactionof negatively charged species, such as DNA, with a positively chargedsurface, such as glass slides coated with poly-lysine. See Schena et al.“Quantitative monitoring of gene expression patterns with acomplementary DNA microarray,” Science 270, 467-70 (1995). Hydrophobicinteractions have also been used to attach nucleic acids to varioussurfaces. See Allemand, et al. “pH-dependent specific binding andcombing of DNA,” Biophys J 73, 2064-70 (1997).

Covalent binding can also be used through a variety of methods. Forexample, UV radiation can be used to cross-link nucleic acids (such asDNA) to amino group containing substances, for example by formingcovalent bonds between positively charged amino groups on afunctionalized surface and thymidine residues present along the lengthof the nucleic acid strand. In this way, the nucleic acid is attached tothe solid support along its length, in a random or non-random manner.See Duggan et al. “Expression profiling using cDNA microarrays,” NatureGenetics 21, 10-14 (1999).

Alternatively, nucleic acids (such as DNA) can be attached to the solidsupport by their 5′ or 3′ ends, particularly where such ends arecarboxylated or phosphorylated. See Joos et al. “Covalent attachment ofhybridizable oligonucleotides to glass supports,” Anal Biochem 247,96-101 (1997) and Joos et al. “Covalent attachment of hybridizableoligonucleotides to glass supports,” Anal Biochem 247, 96-101 (1997).Nucleic acids (such as DNA) can be coupled on aminated supports, or thenucleic acids themselves may be aminated and then attached tocarboxylated, phosphorylated, epoxide-modified,isothiocyanate-activated, or aldehyde-activated supports or surfacessuch as glass surfaces. See Ghosh et al. “Covalent attachment ofoligonucleotides to solid supports,” Nucl. Acids Res. 15, 5353-5372(1987), Lamture et al. “Direct detection of nucleic acid hybridizationon the surface of a charge coupled device,” Nucleic Acids Res. 22,2121-5 (1994), Guo et al. “Direct fluorescence analysis of geneticpolymorphisms by hybridization with oligonucleotide arrays on glasssupports. Nucleic Acids Res. 22, 5456-5465 (1994), Schena et al.,“Parallel human genome analysis: microarray-based expression monitoringof 1000 genes,” PNAS 93, 10614-9 (1996).

Hetero-bifunctional cross-linkers have been used to bind thiol- ordisulfide-modified oligonucleotides onto gold (Boncheva et al. “Designof Oligonucleotide Arrays at Interfaces,” Langmuir 15, 4317-4320(1999)), aminosilane- (Chrisey et al. “Covalent attachment of syntheticDNA to self-assembled monolayer films,” Nucl. Acids Res. 24, 3031-3039(1996)) or 3-mercaptopropylsilane-modified (Rogers et al.“Immobilization of oligonucleotides onto a glass support via disulfidebonds: A method for preparation of DNA microarrays,” AnalyticalBiochemistry 266, 23-30 (1999)) glass surfaces.

Additionally, the use of dendrimeric linker molecules as a substrate forcovalent attachment of Peptide Nucleic Acids (PNAs), PCR products oroligonucleotides, including oligodeoxynucleotides, to glass orpolypropylene supports has been demonstrated (Beier et al. “Versatilederivatisation of solid support media for covalent bonding onDNA-microchips,” Nucleic Acids Res 27, 1970-7 (1999)), as has directsynthesis of nucleic acids on support surfaces using photolithographictechniques (Pease et al. “Light-Generated Oligonucleotide Arrays forRapid DNA Sequence Analysis,” PNAS 91 (1994) 5022).

The invention contemplates the attachment, whether covalent ornon-covalent, and whether direct or indirect, of chromosomal nucleicacids, shorter nucleic acids such as oligonucleotides (includingoligodeoxyribonucleotides and oligoribonucleotides), nucleic acids suchas DNA, RNA, PNA, LNA, or nucleic acids that comprise any combinationand/or level of these various constituents, peptides, proteins includingglycoproteins, carbohydrates, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, andother molecule of interest, regardless of nature. Any of these can beapplied to the surface of the chemFET arrays in any of the wayscurrently used for microarrays or in any other way as the invention isnot limited with respect to these binding chemistries. Known approachesinclude mechanical spotting (for example pin-type spotters), piezo orprint-head (i.e., ink jet, aka drop-on-demand) printing, in situsynthesis or application through attachment from a solution, such aslimiting dilution or dipping.

In addition to the attachment of preformed nucleic acids to the chemFETarrays, the invention also contemplates synthesis of nucleic acids ontothe chemFET array (i.e., in situ synthesis). Thus, the various methodsof in situ nucleic acid synthesis, as reviewed by Guo et al. are alsoapplicable to chemFET arrays. A non-comprehensive list of examplesincludes in situ synthesis via ink-jet printing delivery ofphosphoramidites (Blanchard et al. “High-density oligonucleotidearrays,” Biosensors and Bioelectronics 11, 687-690 (1996)), parallelsynthesis directed by individually electronically addressable wells(Egeland et al. “Electrochemically directed synthesis ofoligonucleotides for DNA microarray fabrication,” Nucleic Acids Res 33,e125 (2005)), maskless photo-generated acid (PGA) controlled synthesis(LeProust et al. “Digital light-directed synthesis. A microarrayplatform that permits rapid reaction optimization on a combinatorialbasis,” J Comb Chem 2, 349-54 (2000); Gao et al. “A flexiblelight-directed DNA chip synthesis gated by deprotection using solutionphotogenerated acids,” Nucleic Acids Res 29, 4744-50 (2001)), maskdirected synthesis utilizing photolithography (PLPG) (Fodor et al.“Light-directed, spatially addressable parallel chemical synthesis,”Science 251, 767-73 (1991)) and maskless PLPG parallel in situ synthesis(Singh-Gasson et al. “Maskless fabrication of light-directedoligonucleotide microarrays using a digital micromirror array,” NatBiotechnol 17, 974-8 (1999)).

Nucleic acid templates have been immobilized onto individual (i.e.,single) chemFETs for various purposes. For example, amine-labeledoligonucleotides bound to a silanized Si₃N₄ surface of a single ISFET,and the change in electrical potential resulting from complementary DNAhybridization was used to detect specific single nucleotidepolymorphisms (SNPs). Sakata et al. “Potentiometric Detection of SingleNucleotide Polymorphism by Using a Genetic Field-effect transistor,”Chembiochem 6, 703-10 (2005). Silanized ISFETs have been proposed formonitoring the voltage signal associated with both the adsorption of PCRproducts to the ISFET surface as well as the secondary voltage signalresulting from hybridization of complementary strands. Uslu et al.“Labelfree fully electronic nucleic acid detection system based on afield-effect transistor device,” Biosens Bioelectron 19, 1723-31 (2004).Single ISFETs have been reported to detect the pH change associated withpolymerase-directed nucleotide incorporation in a replicating DNAstrand, thus monitoring polymerase activity on immobilized DNA templatesin real-time. Sakurai et al. “Real-time monitoring of DNA polymerasereactions by a micro ISFET pH sensor,” Anal Chem 64, 1996-7 (1992).

To date, the throughput of such systems has been low, as demonstrated byDNA detection systems utilizing only 10 (Sakata et al. “Detection of DNArecognition events using multi-well field effect devices,” BiosensBioelectron 21, 827-32 (2005)) or 16 (Barbaro et al., “Fully electronicDNA hybridization detection by a standard CMOS biochip,” Sensors &Actuators: B. Chemical 118, 41-46 (2006)) ISFETs. The invention providessignificant advantages over these approaches by providing very largescale chemFET arrays that are able to interrogate hundreds, thousands,and even millions of samples concurrently and rapidly.

The arrays are contacted with a sample being tested. The sample may be agenomic DNA sample, a cDNA sample from a cell, a tissue or a mass (e.g.,a tumor), a population of cells that are grown on the array, potentiallyin a two dimensional array that corresponds to the underlying sensorarray, and the like. Such arrays are therefore useful for determiningpresence and/or level of a particular gene or of its expression,detecting mutations within particular genes (such as but not limited todeletions, additions, substitutions, including single nucleotidepolymorphisms), and the like.

Besides SNP detection and polymerase activity assays, the ability todeposit large numbers of immobilized nucleic acids on to the surface ofan ISFET array provides real-time, label-free quantification andanalysis for a variety of biological, chemical and other applications,including but not limited to gene expression analysis, comparativegenome hybridization (CGH), and array-based exon enrichment processes.Additionally, such arrays may be used to screen samples including butnot limited to naturally occurring samples such as bodily fluids and/ortissues such as blood, urine, saliva, CSF, lavages, and the like,environmental samples such as water supply samples, air samples, and thelike, for the presence or absence of a substance or in order tocharacterize such sample for example for its origin or identity based onnucleic acid content, protein content, or other analyte content. As anexample, the arrays of the invention may be used to determine thepresence or absence of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, parasites,and the like based on genomic, proteomic, and/or other cellular ororganismic element. The arrays may also be used to identify the presenceor absence, and optionally characterize cancer cells or cells that areindicative of another condition or disorder, in a subject.

Analysis of samples for types and quantities miRNA and siRNA, whether ornot in the presence of total RNA, would have considerable utility. Thus,the invention therefore contemplates ISFET arrays having immobilizedthereon various capture reagents specific for one or more miRNA and/orsiRNA species.

In still other embodiments, the invention contemplates immobilizingriboswitches. Riboswitches are transcripts that are able to sensemetabolites. (Mironov et al. Sensing small molecules by nascent RNA: amechanism to control transcription in bacteria. Cell 111, 747-756(2002); and Winkler et al. Thiamine derivatives bind messenger RNAsdirectly to regulate bacterial gene expression. Nature 419, 952-956(2002).) ISFET arrays having riboswitches immobilized thereo can thendetect metabolites either in or ex situ.

Antibody, Aptamer and Protein Arrays

Protein arrays used in combination with the chemFET arrays of theinvention are also contemplated. Protein arrays comprise proteins orpeptides or other amino acid comprising biological moiety bound to aplanar surface in an organized and predetermined manner. Such proteinsinclude but are not limited to enzymes, antibodies and antibodyfragments or antibody mimics (e.g., single chain antibodies).

In one embodiment, a protein array may comprise a plurality of different(and thus heterogeneous) proteins (or other amino acid containingbiological moieties). Each protein, and preferably a plurality ofproteins, is present in a predetermined region or “cell” of the array.The regions (or cells) are aligned with the sensors in the sensor arraysuch that there is one sensor for each region (or cell). The pluralityof proteins in a single region (or cell) may vary depending on the sizeof the protein and the size of the region (or cell) and may be but isnot limited to at least 10, 50, 100, 500, 10³, 10⁴ or more. The arrayitself may have any number of cells, including but not limited to atleast 10, 10², 10³, 10⁴, 10⁵, 10⁶, 10⁷, or more. In one application, thearray is exposed to a sample that is known to contain or is suspected ofcontaining an analyte that binds to the protein. The analyte may be asubstrate or an inhibitor if the protein is an enzyme. The analyte maybe any molecule that binds to the protein including another protein, anucleic acid, a chemical species (whether synthetic or naturallyoccurring), and the like.

It is to be understood that, like the nucleic acid arrays contemplatedherein, the readout from the protein arrays will be a change in currentthrough the chemFET and thus no additional step of labeling and/or labeldetection is required in these array methods.

In another embodiment, the protein array may comprise a plurality ofidentical (and thus homogeneous) proteins (or other amino acidcontaining biological moieties). The identical proteins may be uniformlydistributed on a planar surface or they may be organized into discreteregions (or cells) on that surface. In these latter embodiments, theregions (or cells) are aligned with the sensors in the sensor array suchthat there is one sensor for each region (or cell).

The proteins may be synthesized off-chip, then purified and attached tothe array. Proteins, like other moieties discussed herein such asnucleic acids, may be attached to the array via an avidin-biotin(including a streptavidin-biotin) interaction. As an example, avidin (orstreptavidin) may be first bound to the array followed by biotinylatedprotein. It will be understood that a similar non-covalent scheme can beused for attaching other moieties including nucleic acids to the array.

Alternatively they can be synthesized on-chip, similarly to the nucleicacids discussed above. Synthesis of proteins using cell-free DNAexpression or chemical synthesis is amenable to on-chip synthesis. Usingcell-free DNA expression, proteins are attached to the solid supportonce synthesized. Alternatively, proteins may be chemically synthesizedon the solid support using solid phase peptide synthesis. Selectivedeprotection is carried out through lithographic methods or bySPOT-synthesis. Reference can be made to at least MacBeath andSchreiber, Science, 2000, 289:1760-1763, or Jones et al. Nature, 2006,439:168-174. Reference can also be made to U.S. Pat. No. 6,919,211 toFodor et al.

Many of the chemistries used to immobilize nucleic acids to solidsurfaces can similarly be employed to bind amino acid containingmolecules such as peptides and proteins and fragments thereof (Zhu etal. “Protein arrays and microarrays,” Curr Opin Chem Biol 5, 40-5(2001); Schweitzer et al. “Measuring proteins on microarrays,” Curr OpinBiotechnol 13, 14-9 (2002); Schweitzer et al. “Multiplexed proteinprofiling on microarrays by rolling-circle amplification,” NatBiotechnol 20, 359-65 (2002)) including but not limited to enzymes(Eppinger et al. “Enzyme microarrays: On-chip determination ofinhibition constants based on affinity-label detection of enzymaticactivity,” Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 43, 3806-10 (2004); Funeriu et al.“Enzyme family-specific and activity-based screening of chemicallibraries using enzyme microarrays,” Nat Biotechnol 23, 622-7 (2005))and antibodies (Schweitzer et al. “Immunoassays with rolling circleamplification: A versatile platform for ultrasensitve antigendetection,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 10113-10119 (2000)). Thesebinding processes are summarized in a review by Gao et al. (Gao, X. etal., “High density peptide microarrays. In situ synthesis andapplications,” Mol Divers 8, 177-87 (2004), and have been applied tosingle individual ISFETs (Schasfoort et al. “Modulation of the ISFETresponse by an immunological reaction,” Sens. Actuators 17, 531-535(1989); Schasfoort et al. “Possibilities and limitations of directdetection of protein charges by means of an immunological field-effecttransistor,” Analytica Chimica Acta 238, 323-329 (1990); Besselink etal. “Modification of ISFETs with a monolayer of latex beads for specificdetection of proteins,” Biosens Bioelectron 18, 1109-14 (2003)).

The invention contemplates covalent and non-covalent (e.g., ionic)attachment of peptides and/or proteins or fragments thereof includingantibody fragments to the ISFET array surface from an applied solution,direct printing of peptides or proteins, self-assembly of peptides orproteins on the array using for example oligonucleotide tags,immobilization of high affinity nucleic acid aptamers, and variousmethods of in situ peptide synthesis as ways of attaching peptides orproteins onto the chemFET surface. Such peptide or protein arraysprovide a valuable tool for real-time detection of small moleculetargets that interact with the immobilized proteins, antibody/antigeninteraction, receptor/ligand, enzyme/inhibitor, enzyme/activator,transcription factor/nucleic acid target, receptor enzyme/inhibitor, andother processes or interactions known to the art.

Aptamers are nucleic acid molecules that bind to various moleculartargets like small molecules, proteins, peptides, DNA, RNA, and the likewith high affinity. Aptamers are easily chemically synthesized, arestable, and show less immunogenicity in humans compared toanimal-derived antibodies. Aptamers can be immobilized to a chemFETarray via standard coupling chemistry and have been shown to besuccessful sensors when coupled to individual ISFETs, as reviewed by Liet al. Recent advances of aptamer sensors. Science in China Series B:Chemistry 51, 193-204 (2008). Due to their low immunogenicity, aptamerFETs may be implanted into a subject and used to monitor physiologicalor biochemical processes and/or status in and of a subject, and therebyprovides real-time readouts.

The invention further contemplates use of ISFET arrays to measure thenumber of protein molecules bound to all RNA in a transcriptome. In thisprocess, RNA-protein interactions would be preserved during cell lysisand RNAs would be captured by specific oligonucleotides immobilized onthe surface of an ISFET array. Enzyme-conjugated antibodies would thenbe introduced to bind to protein antigens following which nonspecificinteractions would be washed away. Similarly, antibodies could be usedagainst translational machinery such as the 80S, 48S, 43S and 40Ssubunits, or specifically against RNA binding proteins. Detection on theISFET array could be accomplished through conjugating antibodies toenzymes that generate ionic products when presented with non-ionicsubstrates, for example converting NADPH to NADP⁺, NADH to NAD⁺, or anyoxidase or reductase that generates a detectable change in the netelectronic charge. An additional benefit of such a scheme is thatantibodies could be combined for multiplexing, generating quantitativedata on multiple proteins and protein/nucleic acid interactions.

The arrays of the invention can also be used to measure the kinetics ofa reaction and/or compare the activities of enzymes. In this way, thearray may be used to select from more efficient enzymes from for examplea pool or library of enzymes. Typically, the reactions being monitoredor measured are those that generate a change in charge that can bedetected at the FET surface. Similarly, the arrays may be used todetermine the effect of different reaction conditions on reactionkinetics. Depending on the embodiment and the reaction being monitored,the enzyme, its substrate (or an analog thereof capable of being actedupon by the enzyme and still be bound to the array), a co-factor, oranother moiety required for readout of the reaction may be attached tothe array. As an example, a sequencing reaction may be monitored usingluciferase bound to the array while the polymerase and its templatesubstrate are free in solution.

Nucleic Acid/Protein Interactions

A chemFET-based array may also be used to explore variousprotein/nucleic acid interactions. For example, RNA/protein binding maybe investigated by lysing cells and capturing the RNA (with associatedproteins) on oligonucleotides immobilized on the chemFET array.Enzyme-conjugated antibodies may then be bound to protein antigen andnonspecific interactions can be washed away. Specific antibodies may beemployed against translational machinery and 80S, 40S, 43S, or 48S RNAregions. Antibodies may also be used against RNA binding proteins, orconjugated to enzymes that produce ionic products when presented withnonionic substrates (for example NADPH to NADP+, NADH to NAD+, andpossibly H₂O₂ or Glutathione). These antibodies can be combined formultiplexing.

Chemical compound microarrays in combination with chemFET arrays arealso envisioned. Chemical compound microarrays can be made by covalentlyimmobilizing the compounds (e.g., organic compounds) on the solidsurface with diverse linking techniques (may be referred to in theliterature as “small molecule microarray”), by spotting and dryingcompounds (e.g., organic compounds) on the solid surface withoutimmobilization (may be referred to in the literature as “micro arrayedcompound screening (μARCS)”), or by spotting organic compounds in ahomogenous solution without immobilization and drying effect(commercialized as DiscoveryDot™ technology by Reaction BiologyCorporation).

Protein Sequencing

The amino acid sequence of proteins also may be determined using achemFET array. For example, proteins may be denatured before or aftercapture on beads, or alternatively, proteins may be captured to thechemFET surface, preferably one protein per well and/or bead (presuminga one bead—one well ratio). These ratios can be achieved using limitingdilution or with nanotechnology. (See RainDance Technologies, etc.)Amino-acyl synthetases are sequentially introduced (by flow) into eachwell. Each amino-acyl synthetase will be specific for each naturallyoccurring amino acid. The amino-acyl synthetases will also be conjugated(covalently or non-covalently) to a moiety that can be detected by itsability to change ionic concentration and, optionally, to a proteasethat is capable of cleaving the immobilized protein one amino acid at atime. An example of a suitable moiety is hydrogen peroxidase which actsupon its substrate hydrogen peroxide to release ions. The synthetasewill bind or not bind to the protein depending on whether the amino acidit specifically recognizes and binds to is present at the free end ofthe protein (whether C or N terminus). Excess (and unbound) synthetaseis washed away and, in this example, hydrogen peroxide is added. An ionchange resulting from the presence of hydrogen peroxidase is thendetected. It will be appreciated that other enzyme and substrate systemsmay be used in place of hydrogen peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide.Enzymes may be preferred given the amplified signal that can beachieved. The last amino acid is then cleaved together with the boundamino-acyl synthetase using limited Edman degradation or by proximitybased radical cleavage, and washed away. The process is repeated usingthe same sequential order of synthetases (i.e., each cycle willintroduce each of the 20 synthetases into the wells). The last aminoacid may be cleaved using a protease that is conjugated to thesynthetase, as an example, in order to limit its activity and preventunnecessary degradation of the protein. This method can quantitate thenumber of proteins, similar to SAGE.

Specific Chemical & Other Molecular Recognition Sites

Other applications for the chemFET arrays involve the use of molecularrecognition sites, wherein molecules that specifically recognizeparticular target molecules are either identified or designed andapplied to the surface of the array. Previous work with chemFETs hasdemonstrated the ability of single individual ISFETs to recognize ionssuch as potassium (Brzozka et al. “Enhanced performance of potassiumCHEMFETs by optimization of a polysiloxane membrane,” Sensors andActuators B. Chemical 18, 38-41 (1994)), hydrogen, calcium and sodium(Sibbald et al. “A miniature flow-through cell with a four-functionChemFET integrated circuit for simultaneous measurements of potassium,hydrogen, calcium and sodium ions,” Analytica chimica acta. 159, 47-62(1984)), heavy metals (Cobben et al. “Transduction of selectiverecognition of heavy metal ions by chemically modified field effecttransistors (CHEMFETs),” Journal of the American Chemical Society 114,10573-10582 (1992)). Such recognition elements may either be uniformlyapplied to the surface, or may be precisely applied to specificlocations using any of the binding or in situ chemistries mentionedabove, thereby producing an array of individual recognition elementsacross the surface of the ISFET array.

Additionally other surface modifications have been reported with singleindividual FETs that would be applicable to the chemFET arrays of theinvention. These include the use of “catcher molecules” (Han et al.“Detection of DNA hybridization by a field-effect transistor withcovalently attached catcher molecules,” Surface and Interface Analysis38, 176-181 (2006)), elongated tethers such as PEG, PEA or conductivemolecules such as carbon nanotubes (Martel et al. “Single- andmulti-wall carbon nanotube field-effect transistors,” Applied PhysicsLetters 73, 2447-2449 (1998)) that serve to permit molecular detectionvia ISFET activity.

Non-Invasive Biological Monitoring

Tissue microarrays in combination with chemFET arrays are furthercontemplated by the invention. Tissue microarrays are discussed ingreater detail in Battifora Lab Invest 1986, 55:244-248; Battifora andMehta Lab Invest 1990, 63:722-724; and Kononen et al. Nat Med 1998,4:844-847.

In yet another aspect, the invention contemplates analysis of cellcultures (e.g., two-dimensional cells cultures) (see for example Baumannet al. Sensors and Actuators B 55 1999 77:89), and tissue sectionsplaced in contact with the chemFET array. As an example, a brain sectionmay be placed in contact with the chemFET array of the invention andchanges in the section may be detected either in the presence or absenceof stimulation such as but not limited to neurotoxins and the like.Transduction of neural processes and/or stimulation can thereby beanalyzed. In these embodiments, the chemFETs may operate by detectingcalcium and/or potassium fluxes via the passivation layer itself or viareceptors for these ions that are coated onto the passivation layer.

chemFET arrays may also be employed to monitor large numbers of cellssimultaneously. In practice, cells and tissues are surrounded in acomplex liquid medium containing many different ion species. Theconcentration of the various ions relates to the health, nutrition, andfunction of the cells. In order to better understand this relationship,planar ISFET arrays could be employed for the temporal and spatialanalysis of a single cell or a large number of cells grown in vitro.Similar work has been shown using a simple 2×2 (Milgrew et al. “Thedevelopment of scalable sensor arrays using standard CMOS technology,”Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 103, 37-42 (2004)) or 16×16 (Milgrewet al. “A large transistor-based sensor array chip for directextracellular imaging,” Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 111-112,347-353 (2005)) MOSFET arrays to monitor the solution pH in cellcultures. These previous attempts were unable to solve thetrapped-charge issue, and/or to obtain functional arrays beyond the16×16 size, and were similarly unable to get these arrays to operatequickly. The arrays of the invention facilitate higher pixel density,increased speed, greater sensitivity, and the ability to couple thearray with specific molecular recognition as outlined above.

One contemplated application involves culture (with or without division)of cells such as brain cells, heart cells, or other tissues on thechemFET array surface and monitoring cellular responses of such cellseither in the absence or presence of one or more chemical, biological,mechanical, or environmental stimuli. As an example, the cellularresponse may be ionic flux (pH), release or uptake of other ions such asNa⁺, K⁺, Ca⁺⁺, or Mg⁺⁺, or other electrochemical activity, any of whichmay be detected as a change in ion concentration at the chemFET surface.

Furthermore, by adopting the principle of electrical impedancetomography (Barber, C. C., Brown et al. “Imaging spatial distribution ofresistivity using applied potential tomography.” Electronics Letters 19,933-935 (1983), and Chai et al. “Electrical impedance tomography forsensing with integrated microelectrodes on a CMOS microchip.” Sensorsand Actuators B: Chemical 127, 97-101 (2007)) and applying it to thesemeasurements, a reconstruction algorithm can be used to detect andcharacterize off-plane ion concentration and flow from cells in situ.This would allow analysis of the biology in the depths of the tissue,beyond the conventional reach of the surface-based ISFET sensor array.

The maintenance of ionic disequilibria is a fundamental process directlyaffected by metabolic activity. One important measure of metabolism iscellular respiration, which involves both glycolysis and oxidativephosphorylation. These two properties have been implicated in a numberof cellular activities (Table 2). In order to monitor cellularrespiration, a planar array of pH-sensitive ISFETs can be complementedwith integrated on-chip dissolved oxygen sensors. These would be basedon conventional amperometric Clark cells using an electrochemicalthree-electrode cell system connected to a potentiostat (Amatore et al.“Analysis of individual biochemical events based on artifical synapsesusing ultramicroelectrodes: cellular oxidative burst.” FaradayDiscussions 116, 319-333 (2000)).

In general, a potentiostat circuit can be built directly into CMOS. Thethree electrodes are fabricated as a post-processing step by usingelectroless plating to deposit gold onto three standard aluminium bondpads (Chai et al. “Modification of a CMOS microelectrode array for abioimpedance imaging system.” Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 111,305-309 (2005)) and then the electrodes are formed by depositing silveror platinum directly on to the gold. Alternatively, if the cells are inan unbuffered medium, then a CMOS-based oxygen sensor can be implementedby taking advantage of the local pH change that occurs during the oxygenreduction reaction (Lehmann et al. “Simultaneous measurement of cellularrespiration and acidification with a single CMOS ISFET.” Biosensors andBioelectronics 16, 195-203 (2001)). A working electrode can befabricated around the gate of a pH-sensitive ISFET and would electrolyzedissolved oxygen. This results in a pH variation due to the generationof hydroxyl ions in close proximity to the gate. This variation islogarithmically proportional to oxygen content and can be measured bythe ISFET.

TABLE 2 Dynamic cell types, activities, and energy requirements assupported by a combination of glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation(Alberts et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4^(th) Edition, GarlandScience, NY, USA (2002)). Main Cellular Metabolic Rate Cell Activity O₂Glycolysis Heart Contraction force, High High membrane potential changesSkeletal Muscle Membrane potential Low/High High/Low changes,contraction force Liver Catabolism, Medium High metabolism Kidney Ionand metabolite Medium Medium gradients Bone Extracellular matrix MediumMedium turnover Neuron Membrane potential Medium High changes, releaseof substances

Furthermore, there is strong evidence to suggest that cells change theirmetabolism according to structure, topography, chemical properties, andcondition of the extracellular matrix that they are suspended in, or towhich they are attached (Boateng et al. “RGD and YIGSR syntheticpeptides facilitate cellular adhesion identical to that of laminin andfibronectin but alter the physiology of neonatal cardiac myocytes.”American Journal of Physiology: Cell Physiology 288, C30-C38 (2005), andMcBeath et al. “Cell shape, cytoskeletal tension, and RhoA regulate stemcell lineage commitment.” Developmental Cell 6, 483-495 (2004)).Understand the effects of culture conditions on cellular metabolismwould be particularly important in the wider context of tissueengineering. To this end, ISFET arrays can be used with small polymercell chips (cell constructs) to analyze single cells, cell lines, cellsheets, and multi-layered cell sheets. The cell constructs could befabricated using embossing, micro-contact printing, and photolithographyto offer a convenient platform for cells. To date, there are no cellculture systems available to measure cell metabolism relative to theeffects of transition from monolayer to truly three-dimensionalenvironments. However, by using a polymer chip that includes a recessfilled with collagen gel incorporating cells, a three-dimensionalculture can be analyzed with a planar ISFET array.

Invasive Biological Monitoring

In yet another aspect, the invention contemplates the use of chemFETarrays, functionalized as described herein or in another manner, for usein vivo. Such an array may be introduced into a subject (e.g., in thebrain or other region that is subject to ion flux) and then analyzed forchanges based on the status of the subject.

An chemFET array may be directly implanted into a test environment andused to monitor the presence and amount of specific molecules ofinterest. Some such applications include environmental testing forspecific toxins and important elements, or direct implantation of thedevice into the body of a subject, providing a 3D image of theconcentration of specific molecules within the tissue.

Electrically active cells display electrical activity because of ionicflows. Hence, in order to better understand tissue physiology in vivo,an ISFET array can be integrated onto a novel ion-discriminating tissueprobe. The invention contemplates a generic platform technology that canbe applied to analyses in at least three distinct areas: (i) thebehavior of epithelia and the role of ions in wound healing, (ii) neuralrecording, and (iii) optical stimulation and recording. Each of these isdiscussed in greater detail below.

Epithelia form a barrier between the body and the external environment.Moreover, they provide a tight seal against the leakage of ions andtheir selective ion-pumping activity generates a large electrochemicalgradient. The resultant bioelectrical fields, apparent in regions wherethe epithelial sheet is damaged, have been shown to stimulate and orientcell migration, optimizing closure (Zhao et al. “Electrical signalscontrol wound healing through phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase-gamma andPTEN.” Nature 442, 457-460 (2006)). There is a distinct differencebetween the fields generated by individual cells, cell-clusters, andsheets. Hence, an ISFET array probe can be used to analyze thistransition by imaging the lateral and spatio-temporal ion dynamics andmeasuring potential generation during wound healing. Typically, cellswith identified channelopathies can be used to analyze how geneticdiseases change the ion dynamics and impact on wound healing. This wouldimprove our understanding of the underlying mechanisms in health anddisease, and also lead to new tissue repair strategies.

The parallel action of large numbers of neurons is fundamental to theoperation of the nervous system and results in various characteristicmacroscopic oscillations (for example, gamma rhythms) that are importantto brain function. Techniques for simultaneously measuring the activityof many neurons are consequently of great interest and utility (Wise etal. “Wireless implantable microsystems: high-density electronicinterfaces to the nervous system.” Proceedings of the IEEE 92, 76-97(2004)). The potential at any given point in nervous tissue is generatedby many distinct ionic currents. For example, synaptic vesicle releaseinvolves Ca²⁺ flux, synaptic inhibition of Cl⁻ flux, and actionpotential generation by Na⁺/K⁺ flux. Previous work has defined theserhythms in terms of net macroscopic currents (e.g., local fieldpotentials less than 100 Hz (Cunningham et al. “A role for fast rhythmicbursting neurons in cortical gamma oscillations in vitro.” PNAS 101,7152-7157 (2004)). Hence, an ISFET array probe can be used to probecortical rhythmic states for the first time at the ionic level. Thiswould identify the contribution of the major ionic species to the gamma,and other rhythms, and therefore increase our understanding of corticalfunction. In turn, this knowledge would contribute to research intotherapeutic drugs and technologies for a wide range of neurologicaldysfunction.

Electronic stimulation of neurons has become increasingly important inrecent years. Notable examples are in the field of cochlear prosthesiswhere electronically acquired data is used to stimulate the cochlearnerve of a patient to restore auditory function. Unfortunately,electrode-based implants fail to perform in large-scale arrays due toproblems with electrolytic degradation, cellular dielectric shielding,and subsequent power consumption problems. Consequently, their use inretinal and cortical implants has been somewhat limited to date.(Humayun et al. “Visual perception in a blind subject with a chronicmicroelectronic retinal prosthesis.” Vision Research 43, 2573-2581(2003), and Normann et al. “A neural interface for a cortical visionprosthesis.” Vision Research 39, 2577-2587 (1999).) Optical stimulationof functionalized neurons using engineered opsins could offer analternative that is an energetically more favorable route forward.Furthermore, it would be possible to specifically target certain typesof ion flow. For instance, channelrhodopsin-2 (Nagel et al.“Channelrhodopsin-2, a directly light-gated cation-selective membranechannel.” PNAS 100, 13940-13945 (2003)) could be used to target Na⁺ andCa²⁺ flow while halorhodopsin (Gradinaru et al. “Targeting and readoutstrategies for fast optical neural control in vitro and in vivo.”Journal of Neuroscience 27, 14231-14238 (2007)) could be used to targetCl⁻ flow. Hence, integrating this technology with an ISFET sensor arraycan enable, for the first time, a route to feedback-controlledstimulation and function.

Equivalents

While several inventive embodiments have been described and illustratedherein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision avariety of other means and/or structures for performing the functionand/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of the advantagesdescribed herein, and each of such variations and/or modifications isdeemed to be within the scope of the inventive embodiments describedherein. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciatethat all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations describedherein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters,dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon thespecific application or applications for which the inventive teachingsis/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able toascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalentsto the specific inventive embodiments described herein. It is,therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presentedby way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claimsand equivalents thereto, inventive embodiments may be practicedotherwise than as specifically described and claimed. Inventiveembodiments of the present disclosure are directed to each individualfeature, system, article, material, kit, and/or method described herein.In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems,articles, materials, kits, and/or methods, if such features, systems,articles, materials, kits, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent,is included within the inventive scope of the present disclosure.

All definitions, as defined and used herein, should be understood tocontrol over dictionary definitions, definitions in documentsincorporated by reference, and/or ordinary meanings of the definedterms.

All references, patents and patent applications disclosed herein areincorporated by reference with respect to the subject matter for whicheach is cited, which in some cases may encompass the entirety of thedocument.

The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in thespecification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to thecontrary, should be understood to mean “at least one.”

The phrase “and/or,” as used herein in the specification and in theclaims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements soconjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some casesand disjunctively present in other cases. Multiple elements listed with“and/or” should be construed in the same fashion, i.e., “one or more” ofthe elements so conjoined. Other elements may optionally be presentother than the elements specifically identified by the “and/or” clause,whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified.Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and/or B”, when usedin conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer,in one embodiment, to A only (optionally including elements other thanB); in another embodiment, to B only (optionally including elementsother than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionallyincluding other elements); etc.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should beunderstood to have the same meaning as “and/or” as defined above. Forexample, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and/or” shall beinterpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, butalso including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and,optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated tothe contrary, such as “only one of” or “exactly one of,” or, when usedin the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactlyone element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or”as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusivealternatives (i.e. “one or the other but not both”) when preceded byterms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or“exactly one of.” “Consisting essentially of,” when used in the claims,shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “atleast one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should beunderstood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more ofthe elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including atleast one of each and every element specifically listed within the listof elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the listof elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally bepresent other than the elements specifically identified within the listof elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether relatedor unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as anon-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “atleast one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and/or B”) canrefer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including morethan one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements otherthan B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally includingmore than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elementsother than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionallyincluding more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including morethan one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.

It should also be understood that, unless clearly indicated to thecontrary, in any methods claimed herein that include more than one stepor act, the order of the steps or acts of the method is not necessarilylimited to the order in which the steps or acts of the method arerecited.

In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitionalphrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,”“containing,” “involving,” “holding,” “composed of,” and the like are tobe understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limitedto. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of” and “consistingessentially of” shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases,respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual ofPatent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.

1. A method for detecting an analyte in a sample comprising providing asample analyzer comprising an array of at least 10⁵ sensors formed inthe substrate, the sensors having a pitch distance of not more than 10microns, the sensors further comprising a field-effect transistor havinga gate oxide with a characteristic thickness, a floating gate, and acharacteristic threshold voltage; disposing one or more nucleic acidspecies in proximity to or in contact with at least a portion of thesensors of the array; disposing a sample in proximity to or in contactwith at least a portion of the sensors of the array wherein aninteraction between the analyte in the sample and the one or morenucleic acid species effectuates a change in at least one electricalproperty of at least one sensor of the array to produce one or moreoutputs reflective of the one or more sensors for which interactionswere detected, and registering the one or more outputs from the one ormore sensors in the array after contact with the sample as an indicatorof analyte presence.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the analyte is anucleic acid, a polynucleotide, or a single nucleotide species.
 3. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the analyte is a protein, an amino acid, anenzyme, an antibody, a receptor, or a compound or molecule at least aportion of which comprises a protein or amino acid.
 4. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the nucleic acids are less than approximately 1000bases in length.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the nucleic acids aresingle stranded.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the nucleic acids aredouble stranded.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the nucleic acids areDNA, RNA, mRNA, siRNA or cDNA.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein thenucleic acids are aptamers.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein thenucleic acids are covalently attached to the chemFET array.
 10. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the interaction between analyte and thenucleic acids causes a change in the concentration of an ionic speciesin proximity to the chemFET.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein thefield-effect transistor is a chemFET.
 12. The method of claim 1, whereinthe field-effect transistor is an ion-sensitive field-effect transistor.13. A method for detecting an analyte in a sample comprising providingan apparatus comprising a plurality of nucleic acids attached to afield-effect transistor array comprising 10⁴ field-effect transistorswherein each field-effect transistor includes a floating gate; disposingnucleic acids in proximity to or in contact with at least a portion ofthe field-effect transistor array; disposing a sample in proximity to orin contact with at least a portion of the sensor array, and identifyinginteractions between the nucleic acids and an analyte present in thesample by detecting changes in electrical output of a field-effecttransistor of the field-effect transistor array representative of achange in a diffusion rate of an ionic species in proximity to thefield-effect transistor due to the presence of the analyte.
 14. Themethod of claim 13, wherein the field-effect transistor is a chemFET.15. The method of claim 13, wherein the field-effect transistor is anion-sensitive field-effect transistor.
 16. The method of claim 13,wherein the analyte is a nucleic acid, a polynucleotide, or a singlenucleotide species.
 17. The method of claim 13, wherein the analyte is aprotein, an amino acid, an enzyme, an antibody, a receptor, or acompound or molecule at least a portion of which comprises a protein oramino acid.
 18. The method of claim 13, wherein the nucleic acids areless than 1000 bases in length.
 19. The method of claim 13, wherein thenucleic acids are single stranded.
 20. The method of claim 13, whereinthe nucleic acids are double stranded.
 21. The method of claim 13,wherein the nucleic acids are DNA, RNA, mRNA, siRNA, or cDNA.
 22. Themethod of claim 13, wherein the nucleic acids are aptamers.
 23. Themethod of claim 13, wherein the nucleic acids are covalently attached tothe chemFET array.